Module 4: Random Variables and sampling: Types of

Sampling, sampling distribution, discrete, continuous

and mixed random variables, probability mass,
probability density and cumulative distribution
functions, mathematical expectation, moments
Ume Ayesha
BCA 4 SEM

Contents
1 Sampling and Sampling Distributions 1
1.1 Types of Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Sampling Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Random Variables 2
2.1 Discrete Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Continuous Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Mixed Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Probability Distributions 3
3.1 Probability Mass Function (PMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Probability Density Function (PDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.3 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4 Mathematical Expectation and Moments 4

4.1 Mathematical Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1 Sampling and Sampling Distributions

In statistics, it is rarely possible to observe an entire population. Instead, we draw a sample
and use it to make inferences about the population parameters.

1
1.1 Types of Sampling
Sampling methods are broadly categorized into probability and non-probability sampling.
For rigorous statistical inference, probability sampling is required.
• Simple Random Sampling (SRS): Every individual in the population has an equal
and independent chance of being selected.
• Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into mutually exclusive subgroups
(strata) based on a specific characteristic (e.g., age, income). A simple random sample
is then drawn from each stratum.
• Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters (often geographical). A
random sample of clusters is chosen, and all members within the selected clusters are
surveyed.
• Systematic Sampling: An initial starting point is selected at random, and then
every k-th element in the population frame is selected.

1.2 Sampling Distribution

Definition 1.1 (Sampling Distribution). The probability distribution of a given statistic
(such as the sample mean X̄ or sample variance S 2 ) based on a random sample of size n.
If we repeatedly draw samples of size n from a population and calculate the statistic for
each sample, the distribution of these calculated statistics forms the sampling distribution.
A foundational concept here is the Central Limit Theorem (CLT), which states that
for a sufficiently large sample size n, the sampling distribution of the sample mean X̄ is
approximately normal, regardless of the population’s underlying distribution.

2 Random Variables
Definition 2.1 (Random Variable). A random variable X is a measurable function that
assigns a real number to each outcome in the sample space Ω of a random experiment.
formally: X : Ω → R.
Random variables are classified based on the set of values they can take:

2.1 Discrete Random Variables

A random variable is discrete if its range is finite or countably infinite (e.g., 0, 1, 2, . . . ).
• Example: The number of defective items in a batch of 100.

2.2 Continuous Random Variables

A random variable is continuous if its range is an uncountably infinite set of values, typically
forming an interval on the real line.
• Example: The exact time it takes for a chemical reaction to complete.

2
2.3 Mixed Random Variables
A mixed random variable has both discrete and continuous components. Its cumulative
distribution function will have jump discontinuities (discrete part) and continuous intervals.

• Example: The waiting time at a clinic. With probability p > 0, a patient waits exactly
0 minutes (discrete). Otherwise, they wait a continuous amount of time T > 0.

3 Probability Distributions
3.1 Probability Mass Function (PMF)
For a discrete random variable X, the PMF gives the probability that X takes a specific
value x.
pX (x) = P (X = x)
Properties:

1. pX (x) ≥ 0 for all x.

P
2. x pX (x) = 1.

3.2 Probability Density Function (PDF)

For a continuous random variable X, the PDF fX (x) describes the relative likelihood for
this random variable to take on a given value. The probability at any single exact point is
zero; probability is measured over an interval.
Z b
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = fX (x) dx
a

Properties:

1. fX (x) ≥ 0 for all x.

R∞
2. −∞ fX (x) dx = 1.

3.3 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

The CDF uniquely defines the distribution of any random variable (discrete, continuous, or
mixed).

Definition 3.1 (CDF). The CDF FX (x) is defined as the probability that the random variable
X will take a value less than or equal to x.

FX (x) = P (X ≤ x)

Properties of CDF:

3
 1. limx→−∞ FX (x) = 0 and limx→∞ FX (x) = 1.
2. Non-decreasing: If a < b, then FX (a) ≤ FX (b).
3. Right-continuous: limh→0+ FX (x + h) = FX (x).
d
Relationship: For a continuous random variable, fX (x) = F (x)
dx X
wherever the derivative
exists.

4 Mathematical Expectation and Moments

4.1 Mathematical Expectation
The expectation (or expected value/mean) of a random variable is the probability-weighted
average of all its possible values, representing the ”center of mass” of the distribution. De-
noted by µ or E[X].
X
• Discrete: E[X] = x · pX (x)
x
Z ∞
• Continuous: E[X] = x · fX (x) dx
−∞

Linearity of Expectation: For any constants a, b and random variables X, Y :

E[aX + bY ] = aE[X] + bE[Y ]

4.2 Moments
Moments are quantitative measures related to the shape of the function’s graph.
Definition 4.1 (n-th Raw Moment). The n-th moment about the origin is defined as the
expected value of X n :
µ′n = E[X n ]
Note that the first raw moment (n = 1) is the mean, E[X].
Definition 4.2 (n-th Central Moment). The n-th moment about the mean µ is defined as:
µn = E[(X − µ)n ]
Important Moments:
• Variance (2nd Central Moment): Measures the spread or dispersion of the distri-
bution.
Var(X) = σ 2 = E[(X − µ)2 ] = E[X 2 ] − (E[X])2
• Skewness (related to 3rd Central Moment): Measures the asymmetry of the
distribution.
• Kurtosis (related to 4th Central Moment): Measures the ”tailedness” of the
distribution.

4
Practice Questions
1. A retail outlet contains 20 similar laptops out of which 3 are defective. If a school makes
a random purchase of 2 of these computers, illustrate the probability distribution for
the number of defectives.

2. A box contains 15 light bulbs, out of which 4 are defective. If a store randomly selects
3 light bulbs from this box, illustrate the probability distribution for the number of
defective light bulbs selected.

5
Solutions
1. Laptop Defectives Problem
This problem follows a hypergeometric distribution because we are sampling without
replacement.
Total number of laptops, N = 20.
Number of defective laptops, K = 3.
Number of non-defective laptops = 20 − 3 = 17.
Sample size drawn, n = 2.
Let X be the random variable representing the number of defective laptops purchased.
The possible values for X are 0, 1, and 2.
The total number of ways to select 2 laptops out of 20 is:
 
20 20 × 19
= = 190
2 2×1

Now we calculate the probability for each possible value of X:

• Probability of 0 defective laptops (X = 0): We choose 0 from the 3 defectives

and 2 from the 17 non-defectives.
3 17



1 × 136 136 68
P (X = 0) = 20
2 =
0
= =
2
190 190 95

• Probability of 1 defective laptop (X = 1): We choose 1 from the 3 defectives

and 1 from the 17 non-defectives.
3 17



3 × 17 51
1
P (X = 1) = 20
1 = =
2
190 190

• Probability of 2 defective laptops (X = 2): We choose 2 from the 3 defectives

and 0 from the 17 non-defectives.
3 17



3×1 3
P (X = 2) = 20
0 =
2
=
2
190 190

Probability Distribution Table for X:

X 0 1 2
136 51 3
P (X) 190 190 190

136 51 3 190
(Note: 190
+ 190
+ 190
= 190
= 1, which confirms the distribution is correct.)

6
2. Light Bulb Defectives Problem
Total number of bulbs, N = 15.
Number of defective bulbs, K = 4.
Number of non-defective bulbs = 15 − 4 = 11.
Sample size drawn, n = 3.
Let X be the random variable representing the number of defective light bulbs selected.
The possible values for X are 0, 1, 2, and 3.
The total number of ways to select 3 bulbs out of 15 is:
 
15 15 × 14 × 13
= = 455
3 3×2×1

Now we calculate the probability for each possible value of X:

• Probability of 0 defective bulbs (X = 0):

4 11



1 × 165 165 33
0
P (X = 0) = 15
3 = = =
3
455 455 91

• Probability of 1 defective bulb (X = 1):

4 11



4 × 55 220 44
P (X = 1) = 1 15
2 = = =
3
455 455 91

• Probability of 2 defective bulbs (X = 2):

4 11



6 × 11 66
P (X = 2) = 2 15
1 = =
3
455 455

• Probability of 3 defective bulbs (X = 3):

4 11



4×1 4
P (X = 3) = 15
0 =
3
=
3
455 455

Probability Distribution Table for X:

X 0 1 2 3
165 220 66 4
P (X) 455 455 455 455

165 220 66 4 455

(Note: 455
+ 455
+ 455
+ 455
= 455
= 1, which confirms the distribution is correct.)

7
Practice Questions
1. Suppose that the error in the reaction temperature, in ◦ C, for a controlled laboratory
experiment is a continuous random variable X having the probability density function
( 2
x
, for − 1 < x < 2
f (x) = 3
0, elsewhere

(i) Demonstrate that f (x) is a density function.

(ii) Illustrate the value of P (0 < X ≤ 1).

2. Suppose that the error in the reaction temperature, in ◦ C, for a controlled laboratory
experiment is a continuous random variable Y having the probability density function
(
1
, for 0 < y < 100
f (y) = 100
0, elsewhere

(i) Demonstrate that f (y) is a density function.

(ii) Illustrate the value of P (2 ≤ Y ≤ 6).

8
Solutions
1. Solution for Random Variable X:

(i) Demonstrate that f (x) is a density function:

For f (x) to be a valid probability density function (PDF), it must satisfy two
conditions:
i. f (x) ≥ 0 for all real x.
2
Since x2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers, x3 ≥ 0 on the interval (−1, 2). Outside this
interval, f (x) = 0. Thus, the non-negativity condition holds.
R∞
ii. The total area under the curve must equal 1, i.e., −∞ f (x) dx = 1.
∞ 2
x2
Z Z
f (x) dx = dx
−∞ −1 3
 2
1 x3 1 3
2 − (−1)3


= =
3 3 −1 9
1 1
= (8 − (−1)) = (9) = 1
9 9
Since both conditions are satisfied, f (x) is a valid probability density function.

(ii) Illustrate the value of P (0 < X ≤ 1):

To find the probability that X falls between 0 and 1, we integrate the PDF over
that interval: Z 1 2
x
P (0 < X ≤ 1) = dx
0 3
 1
1 x3 1 3
1 − 03


= =
3 3 0 9
1 1
= (1) =
9 9

2. Solution for Random Variable Y :

(i) Demonstrate that f (y) is a density function:

For f (y) to be a valid PDF, it must satisfy the same two conditions:
i. f (y) ≥ 0 for all real y.
1
Since f (y) = 100 > 0 for 0 < y < 100, and 0 elsewhere, the non-negativity
condition holds.

9
 R∞
ii. The total area under the curve must equal 1, i.e., −∞ f (y) dy = 1.
Z ∞ Z 100
1
f (y) dy = dy
−∞ 0 100
1 1
= [y]100
0 = (100 − 0) = 1
100 100
Since both conditions are satisfied, f (y) is a valid probability density function
(specifically, a Uniform distribution).

(ii) Illustrate the value of P (2 ≤ Y ≤ 6):

To find the probability that Y falls between 2 and 6, we integrate the PDF over
that interval: Z 6
1
P (2 ≤ Y ≤ 6) = dy
2 100
1 1
= [y]62 = (6 − 2)
100 100
4 1
= = or 0.04
100 25

Practice Questions
27. Given the following probability distribution function f (x) of a discrete random variable
X.

x 0 1 2 3 4
1 3 2 1 1
f (x) 10 10 5 10 10

(i) Illustrate the cumulative distribution function F (x) of the random variable X.
(ii) Demonstrate that f (2) = 25 .
(iii) Calculate F (0), F (1), F (2), F (3), and F (4).

28. Given the following probability distribution function g(y) of a discrete random variable
Y.

y 1 2 3 4
g(y) 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.1

Illustrate the cumulative distribution function G(y) of the random variable Y .

(i) Demonstrate that g(2) = 25 . (Note: Based on the table, we will demonstrate
g(2) = 0.5 to maintain a valid probability distribution sum of 1).
(ii) Calculate G(0), G(1), G(2), G(3), and G(4).

10
Solutions
27. Solution for Random Variable X:

(ii) Demonstrate that f (2) = 52 :

For
P a valid probability distribution, the sum of all probabilities must equal 1:
f (x) = 1. Let’s assume f (2) is the unknown value p.

f (0) + f (1) + p + f (3) + f (4) = 1

1 3 1 1
+ +p+ + =1
10 10 10 10
6 6 4 2
+ p = 1 =⇒ p = 1 − = =
10 10 10 5
2
Thus, it is demonstrated that f (2) = 5 .

(iii) Calculate F (x) values: P

The cumulative distribution function F (x) = P (X ≤ x) = t≤x f (t).
• 1
F (0) = f (0) = 10
• F (1) = F (0) + f (1) = 1
10
+ 3
10
4
= 10 = 2
5
• F (2) = F (1) + f (2) = 4
10
+ 4
10
8
= 10 = 4
5
• F (3) = F (2) + f (3) = 8
10
+ 1
10
9
= 10
• F (4) = F (3) + f (4) = 9
10
+ 1
10
=1

(i) Illustrate the CDF F (x):

Using the calculated values, the full piecewise cumulative distribution function is:


 0 for x < 0
1

for 0 ≤ x < 1


 10

 2 for 1 ≤ x < 2

F (x) = 45
 5 for 2 ≤ x < 3


9
for 3 ≤ x < 4


10



1 for x ≥ 4


28. Solution for Random Variable Y :

(i) Demonstrate g(2): P

The sum of all probabilities in a valid PMF must equal 1: g(y) = 1. Let
g(2) = p.
g(1) + p + g(3) + g(4) = 1
0.2 + p + 0.2 + 0.1 = 1

11
 0.5 + p = 1 =⇒ p = 0.5
(Note: The question paper asks to demonstrate 52 or 0.4, but this would result in a
total probability of 0.9. Therefore, 0.5 is the mathematically correct value to make
this a valid distribution.)

(ii) Calculate G(y) values:

The cumulative distribution function G(y) = P (Y ≤ y). Since the lowest value
Y can take is 1, any value less than 1 has a cumulative probability of 0.
• G(0) = 0
• G(1) = g(1) = 0.2
• G(2) = G(1) + g(2) = 0.2 + 0.5 = 0.7
• G(3) = G(2) + g(3) = 0.7 + 0.2 = 0.9
• G(4) = G(3) + g(4) = 0.9 + 0.1 = 1.0

Illustrate the CDF G(y):

The full piecewise cumulative distribution function is:


 0 for y < 1

0.2 for 1 ≤ y < 2



G(y) = 0.7 for 2 ≤ y < 3

0.9 for 3 ≤ y < 4





1.0 for y ≥ 4

Practice Questions
2. A continuous random variable has the pdf

f (x) = kx4 , −1 < x < 0.

(i) Illustrate the value of k, and

(ii) Solve, P (X > − 21 /X < − 14 ).

3. The probability mass function of a random variable X is defined as P (X = 0) = 3C 2 ,

P (X = 1) = 4C − 10C 2 , and P (X = 2) = 5C − 1, where C > 0 and P (X = r) = 0, if
r ̸= 0, 1, 2.

(i) Illustrate the value of C,

(ii) Solve, P (0 < X < 2/X > 0).

12
Solutions
2. Solution for Continuous Random Variable X:

(i) Find the value of k:

For f (x) to be a valid probability density function, the total area under the curve
must equal 1: Z ∞
f (x) dx = 1
−∞

Given the domain is −1 < x < 0, we set up the integral:

Z 0
kx4 dx = 1
−1
0
x5

k =1
5 −1

05 (−1)5
 
k − =1
5 5
  
1
k 0− − =1
5
 
1
k = 1 =⇒ k = 5
5
So, the PDF is f (x) = 5x4 for −1 < x < 0.

(ii) Solve P (X > − 21 | X < − 14 ):

P (A∩B)
Using the conditional probability formula P (A | B) = P (B)
:

P X > − 12 and X < − 14

 

1 1
P X>− |X<− =
P X < − 14


2 4

The intersection of X > −1/2 and X < −1/4 is −1/2 < X < −1/4.
Step 1: Calculate the Numerator P (− 12 < X < − 41 )
Z −1/4  5  5
 −1/4 1 1
5x dx = x5 −1/2 =
4
− − −
−1/2 4 2
 
1 1 1 32 31
=− − − =− + =
1024 32 1024 1024 1024
Step 2: Calculate the Denominator P (X < − 14 )
Since the lowest limit of the domain is −1, this is P (−1 < X < − 14 ):
Z −1/4  5
 −1/4 1
5x dx = x5 −1 =
4
− − (−1)5
−1 4

13
 1 1 1023
=− − (−1) = 1 − =
1024 1024 1024
Step 3: Calculate the Conditional Probability

P (− 12 < X < − 14 ) 31
1024 31 1
= = =
P (−1 < X < − 41 ) 1023
1024
1023 33

3. Solution for Discrete Random Variable X:

(i) Find the value of C:

The sum of all probabilities in a probability mass function must equal 1:
X
P (X = xi ) = 1

P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2) = 1
(3C 2 ) + (4C − 10C 2 ) + (5C − 1) = 1
−7C 2 + 9C − 1 = 1
−7C 2 + 9C − 2 = 0
Multiplying by −1 gives a standard quadratic equation:

7C 2 − 9C + 2 = 0

Factorizing the quadratic equation:

7C 2 − 7C − 2C + 2 = 0

7C(C − 1) − 2(C − 1) = 0
(7C − 2)(C − 1) = 0
So, C = 1 or C = 27 .
Since probabilities cannot exceed 1, we must test both values:
• If C = 1, P (X = 0) = 3(1)2 = 3 (Invalid, probability > 1).
• If C = 27 , we get valid probabilities:
 2  
2 4 12
P (X = 0) = 3 =3 =
7 49 49
   2
2 2 8 40 56 − 40 16
P (X = 1) = 4 − 10 = − = =
7 7 7 49 49 49
 
2 10 10 − 7 3 21
P (X = 2) = 5 −1= −1= = =
7 7 7 7 49
12+16+21 49
Sum = 49
= 49
= 1.

14
 Thus, the valid value is C = 27 .

(ii) Solve P (0 < X < 2 | X > 0):

Using the conditional probability formula:
P ((0 < X < 2) ∩ (X > 0))
P (0 < X < 2 | X > 0) =
P (X > 0)
Since X is a discrete random variable taking values {0, 1, 2}, the only value sat-
isfying 0 < X < 2 is X = 1. The intersection of (0 < X < 2) and (X > 0) is
simply the event X = 1. The event X > 0 means X = 1 or X = 2.

P (X = 1)
=
P (X = 1) + P (X = 2)
Substitute the probabilities we found in part (i):
16 16
49 49 16
= 16 21 = 37 =
49
+ 49 49
37

Practice Questions
15. If the probability mass function of a random variable X is given by P (X = r) = kr3 ,
r = 1, 2, 3, 4, then
(i) Illustrate the value of k, and
(ii) Solve, P 21 < X < 52 /X > 1 .

16. The joint pdf of a two-dimensional random variable (X, Y) is given by

(
k(6 − x − y), 0 < x < 2, 2 < y < 4
f (x, y) =
0, elsewhere
(i) Solve, P (X < 1, Y < 3) and
(ii) Solve, P (X < 1/Y < 3)
17. The probability mass function of a random variable X is defined as
P (X = 0) = 3K 2 , P (X = 1) = 4K − 10K 2 , and P (X = 2) = 5K − 1, where K > 0
and P (X = m) = 0, if m ̸= 0, 1, 2,
(i) Illustrate the value of K,
(ii) Solve, P (0 < X < 2/X > 0).
18. A random variable X has the following probability of X
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(X) 0 k 2k 2k 3k k2 2k 2 2
7k + k
(i) Illustrate the value of k.
(ii) Solve, P (X < 6), P (X ≥ 6) & P (0 < X < 5)

15
Solutions
15. Solution for Discrete RV X:

(i) Find the value of k:

The sum of all probabilities must equal 1: 4r=1 P (X = r) = 1.
P

k(13 ) + k(23 ) + k(33 ) + k(43 ) = 1

k(1 + 8 + 27 + 64) = 1
1
k(100) = 1 =⇒ k =
100
(ii) Solve P (0.5 < X < 2.5 | X > 1):
Using the conditional probability formula:

P ((0.5 < X < 2.5) ∩ (X > 1))

P (0.5 < X < 2.5 | X > 1) =
P (X > 1)

The intersection of (0.5 < X < 2.5) and (X > 1) restricts the integer values of X
to exactly X = 2.
The event X > 1 includes X = 2, 3, 4.

P (X = 2)
=
P (X = 2) + P (X = 3) + P (X = 4)
8 8
100 100 8
= 8 27 64 = 99 =
100
+ 100
+ 100 100
99

16. Solution for Joint PDF (X, Y ):

First, find the value of k by integrating the joint PDF over its entire domain and setting
it to 1: Z 2Z 4
k(6 − x − y) dy dx = 1
0 2
Inner integral w.r.t y:
4 4
y2
Z 
(6 − x − y) dy = 6y − xy − = (24 − 4x − 8) − (12 − 2x − 2)
2 2 2

= (16 − 4x) − (10 − 2x) = 6 − 2x

Outer integral w.r.t x:
Z 2
2
(6 − 2x) dx = k 6x − x2 0 = k(12 − 4) = 8k

k
0

Setting 8k = 1 =⇒ k = 81 .

16
 (i) Solve P (X < 1, Y < 3):
Z 1 Z 3
1
P (X < 1, Y < 3) = (6 − x − y) dy dx
0 2 8
Inner integral w.r.t y:
3
y2

1 1
6y − xy − = [(18 − 3x − 4.5) − (12 − 2x − 2)]
8 2 2 8

1 1
= [13.5 − 3x − 10 + 2x] = (3.5 − x)
8 8
Outer integral w.r.t x:
1 1
x2
Z 
1 1 1 1 3
(3.5 − x) dx = 3.5x − = (3.5 − 0.5) = (3) =
0 8 8 2 0 8 8 8

(ii) Solve P (X < 1 | Y < 3):

P (X < 1, Y < 3)
P (X < 1 | Y < 3) =
P (Y < 3)

We already have the numerator (3/8). We need the marginal probability P (Y <
3): Z 2Z 3
1
P (Y < 3) = (6 − x − y) dy dx
0 2 8

Using the inner integral result from part (i), which was 18 (3.5 − x):
2 2
x2
Z 
1 1 1 5
P (Y < 3) = (3.5 − x) dx = 3.5x − = (7 − 2) =
0 8 8 2 0 8 8

Therefore:
3
8 3
P (X < 1 | Y < 3) = 5 =
8
5

17. Solution for Discrete RV X (Quadratic PMF):

(i) P
Illustrate the value of K:
P (X) = 1 =⇒ 3K 2 + (4K − 10K 2 ) + (5K − 1) = 1

−7K 2 + 9K − 2 = 0 =⇒ 7K 2 − 9K + 2 = 0

Factorizing: (7K − 2)(K − 1) = 0. Thus, K = 1 or K = 2/7. If K = 1,

P (X = 0) = 3(1)2 = 3 (which is invalid since probabilities cannot exceed 1).
Therefore, K = 72 .

17
 (ii) Solve P (0 < X < 2 | X > 0):
P (0 < X < 2 | X > 0) = P ((0<X<2)∩(X>0))
P (X>0)
P (X=1)
= P (X=1)+P (X=2)
First, compute the probabilities with K = 2/7:
   
2 4 8 40 56 − 40 16
P (X = 1) = 4 − 10 = − = =
7 49 7 49 49 49
 
2 10 3 21
P (X = 2) = 5 −1= −1= =
7 7 7 49
Substitute into the formula:
16 16
49 49 16
= 16 21 = 37 =
49
+ 49 49
37

18. Solution for Tabular Discrete RV X:

(i) Illustrate the value of k:

Sum of probabilities = 1:

0 + k + 2k + 2k + 3k + k 2 + 2k 2 + (7k 2 + k) = 1

10k 2 + 9k − 1 = 0 =⇒ (10k − 1)(k + 1) = 0

1
Since k must be non-negative, k = 10
= 0.1.
(ii) Solve probabilities:
• P (X < 6):

P (X < 6) = P (0) + P (1) + P (2) + P (3) + P (4) + P (5) = 8k + k 2

= 8(0.1) + (0.1)2 = 0.8 + 0.01 = 0.81

• P (X ≥ 6):

P (X ≥ 6) = P (6) + P (7) = 2k 2 + (7k 2 + k) = 9k 2 + k

= 9(0.01) + 0.1 = 0.09 + 0.1 = 0.19

• P (0 < X < 5):

P (0 < X < 5) = P (1) + P (2) + P (3) + P (4) = k + 2k + 2k + 3k = 8k

= 8(0.1) = 0.8

18