ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
UNIT V GAS MIXTURES AND PSYCHROMETRY
5.1 GAS MIXTURES
Pure substance is defined as a substance which means that it is homogeneous and unchanging
in chemical composition.
COMPOSITION OF A GAS MIXTURE: MASS
AND MOLE FRACTIONS
To determine the properties of a mixture, we need to know the composition of the mixture as
well as the properties of the individual components. There are two ways
to describe the composition of a mixture: either by specifying the number of moles of each
component, called molar analysis, or by specifying the mass of each component, called
gravimetric analysis.
Consider a gas mixture composed of k components. The mass of the mixture mm is
the sum of the masses of the individual components, and the mole number of the mixture Nm
is the sum of the mole numbers of the individual components.
The ratio of the mass of a component to the mass of the mixture is called the mass fraction mf,
and the ratio of the mole number of a component to the mole number of the mixture is called the
mole fraction
Dividing (1) by mm or (2) by Nm, we can easily show that the sum of the mass fractions or
mole fractions for a mixture is equal to 1
The mass of a substance can be expressed in terms of the mole number N and molar mass M
of the substance as m _ NM. Then the apparent (oraverage) molar mass and the gas constant
of a mixture can be expressed as
The molar mass of a mixture can also be expressed as
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 1
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Mass and mole fractions of a mixture are related by
1. Consider a gas mixture that consists of 3kg of O2, 5kg of N2 and 12 Kg of CH4. Determine
(a) the mass fraction of each component. (b) The mole fraction of each component. (c)
Average molar mass and gas constant of the mixture.
Solution:
(a) The total mass of the mixture is
mm = mo2+mN2+mCH4= 3+5+12=20 kgs
Then the mass fraction of each component becomes
mfo2= mo2/mm= 3/20= 0.15
mfN2= mN2/mm= 5/20= 0.25
mfCH4= mCH4/mm= 12/20= 0.60
(b) To find mole fractions we need to determine mole numbers of each components.
N (o2)=mo2/Mo2 = 3kg/32kg per kmol = 0.094 kmol
N (N2)=mN2/MN2 = 5kg/28kg per kmol = 0.179 kmol
N (CH4)=mCH4/MCH4 = 12kg/16kg per kmol = 0.750 kmol
Thus, Nm =N(o2) +N(N2) +N(CH4) =0.094+0.179+0.750 = 1.023 kmol.
And,
y(o2)= N(o2)/Nm =0.094/1.023 = 0.092
y(N2)= N(N2)/Nm =0.179/1.023 = 0.175
y(CH4)= N(CH4)/Nm =0.750/1.023 = 0.733
(c) The average molar mass and gas constant of the mixture are determined from their
definitions.
Mm = mm/Nm =20/1.023 = 19.6kg/kmol
Also,
Rm = Ru/Mm = 8.314/19.6 = 0.424k J per kg K.
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 2
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
5.2 P-v-T BEHAVIOR OF GAS MIXTURES: IDEAL
AND REAL GASES
An ideal gas is defined as a gas whose molecules are spaced far apart so that the
behavior of a molecule is not influenced by the presence of other moleculessituation
encountered at low densities. We also mentioned that real gases approximate this behavior closely
when they are at a low pressure or high temperature relative to their critical-point values. The P-
v-T behavior of an ideal gas is expressed by the simple relation Pv _ RT, which is called the
ideal-gas equation of state. The P-v-T behavior of real gases is expressed by more complex
equations of state or by Pv _ ZRT, where Z is the compressibility factor.
When two or more ideal gases are mixed, the behavior of a molecule normally is not
influenced by the presence of other similar or dissimilar molecules, and therefore a nonreacting
mixture of ideal gases also behaves as an ideal gas. Air, for example, is conveniently
treated as an ideal gas in the range where
nitrogen and oxygen behave as ideal gases. When a gas mixture consists of real
(nonideal) gases, however, the prediction of the P-v-T behavior of the mixture becomes rather
involved.
The prediction of the P-v-T behavior of gas mixtures is usually based on two models:
Dalton’s law of additive pressures and Amagat’s law of additive volumes. Both models are
described and discussed below.
Dalton’s law of additive pressures:
Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that the total
pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each
individual component in a gas mixture. This empirical law was observed by John Dalton in 1801
and is related to the ideal gas laws. Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be
defined as the summation
Amagat’s law of additive volumes:
Amagat's law or the Law of Partial Volumes of 1880 describes the behavior and
properties of mixtures of ideal (as well as some cases of non-ideal) gases. Of use in chemistry
and thermodynamics, Amagat's law states that the volume Vm of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of volumes Vi of the K component gases, if the temperature T and the pressure p
remain the same:
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 3
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
This is the experimental expression of volume as an extensive quantity. It is named after
Emile Amagat. Both Amagat's and Dalton's Law predict the properties of gas mixtures. Their
predictions are the same for ideal gases. However, for real (non-ideal) gases, the results differ.
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures assumes that the gases in the mixture are non-interacting (with
each other) and each gas independently applies its own pressure, the sum of which is the total
pressure. Amagat's Law assumes that the volumes of each component gas (same temperature and
pressure) are additive; the interactions of the different gases are the same as the average
interactions of the components.
Heat capacity
The heat capacity at constant volume of an ideal gas is:
It is seen that the constant is just the dimensionless heat capacity at constant volume. It is
equal to half the number of degrees of freedom per particle. For moderate temperatures, the
constant for a monoatomic gas is while for a diatomic gas it is . It is
seen that macroscopic measurements on heat capacity provide information on the microscopic
structure of the molecules.
where H = U + pV is the enthalpy of the gas. It is seen that is also a constant and that the
dimensionless heat capacities are related by:
5.3 ENTROPY
Using the results of thermodynamics only, we can go a long way in
determining the expression for the entropy of an ideal gas. This is an important step since,
according to the theory of thermodynamic potentials, of which the internal energy U is one, if we
can express the entropy as a function of U and the volume V, then we will have a complete
statement of the thermodynamic behavior of the ideal gas. We will be able to derive both the
ideal gas law and the expression for internal energy from it. Since the entropy is an exact
differential, using the chain rule, the change in entropy when going from a reference state 0
to some other state with entropy S may be written as ΔS where:
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 4
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
This is about as far as we can go using thermodynamics alone. Note that the above
equation is flawed — as the temperature approaches zero, the entropy approaches negative
infinity, in contradiction to the third law of thermodynamics. In the above "ideal" development,
there is a critical point, not at absolute zero, at which the argument of the logarithm becomes
unity, and the entropy becomes zero.
5.4 PSYCHROMETRY
psychrometry is a term used to describe the field of engineering concerned with
the determination of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures. The
term derives from the Greek psuchron meaning "cold" and metron meaning "means of
measurement"
Common applications
The principles of psychrometry apply to any physical system consisting of
gasvapor mixtures. The most common system of interest, however, are mixtures of water vapor
and air because of its application in heating, ventilating, and air- conditioning and meteorology.
Psychrometric ratio
The psychrometric ratio is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the product of mass
transfer coefficient and humid heat at a wetted surface. It may be evaluated with the following
equation
where:
• r = Psychrometric ratio, dimensionless
• hc = convective heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1
• ky = convective mass transfer coefficient, kg m-2 s-1
• cs = humid heat, J kg-1 K-1
Humid heat is the constant-pressure specific heat of moist air, per unit mass of dry air.
The psychrometric ratio is an important property in the area of psychrometrics as it relates the
absolute humidity and saturation humidity to the difference between the
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 5
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
dry bulb temperature and the adiabatic saturation temperature. Mixtures of air and water vapor
are the most common systems encountered in psychrometry. The psychrometric ratio of air-
water vapor mixtures is approximately unity which implies that the difference between the
adiabatic saturation temperature and wet bulb temperature of air-water vapor mixtures is small.
This property of air-water vapor systems simplifies drying and cooling calculations often
performed using psychrometic relationships.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
A psychrometric chart is a graph of the physical properties of moist air at a constant
pressure (often equated to an elevation relative to sea level). The chart graphically expresses how
various properties relate to each other, and is thus a graphical equation of state. The
thermophysical properties found on most psychrometric charts are:
• Dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is that of an air sample, as determined by an ordinary
thermometer, the thermometer's bulb being dry. It is typically the x-axis,
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 6
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
the horizontal axis, of the graph. The SI units for temperature are Kelvin; other units are
Fahrenheit.
• Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is that of an air sample after it has passed through a constant-
pressure, ideal, adiabatic saturation process, that is, after the air has passed over a large surface of
liquid water in an insulated channel. In practice, this is the reading of a thermometer whose
sensing bulb is covered with a wet sock evaporating into a rapid stream of the sample air. The
WBT is the same as the DBT when the air sample is saturated with water. The slope of the line
of constant WBT reflects the heat of vaporization of the water required to saturate the air of a
given relative humidity.
• Dew point temperature (DPT) is that temperature at which a moist air sample at the same
pressure would reach water vapor saturation. At this saturation point, water vapor would
begin to condense into liquid water fog or (if below freezing) solid hoarfrost, as heat is removed.
The dewpoint temperature is measured easily and provides useful information, but is normally
not considered an independent property. It duplicates information available via other humidity
properties and the saturation curve.
• Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the mole fraction of
saturated moist air at the same temperature and pressure. RH is dimensionless, and is usually
expressed as a percentage. Lines of constant RH reflect the physics of air and water: they are
determined via experimental measurement. Note: the notion that air "holds" moisture, or that
moisture dissolves in dry air and saturates the solution at some proportion, is an erroneous (albeit
widespread) concept (see relative humidity for further details).
• Humidity ratio (also known as moisture content, mixing ratio, or specific humidity) is the
proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air at the
given conditions (DBT, WBT, DPT, RH, etc.). It is typically the y-axis, the vertical axis, of the
graph. For a given DBT there will be a particular humidity ratio for which the air sample is at
100% relative humidity: the relationship reflects the
physics of water and air and must be measured. Humidity ratio is dimensionless, but is
sometimes expressed as grams of water per kilogram of dry air or grains of water per pound of
air.
• Specific enthalpy symbolized by h, also called heat content per unit mass, is the sum of the
internal (heat) energy of the moist air in question, including the heat of the air and water vapor
within. In the approximation of ideal gases, lines of constant enthalpy are parallel to lines
of constant WBT. Enthalpy is given in (SI)
joules per kilogram of air or BTU per pound of dry air.
• Specific volume, also called inverse density, is the volume per unit mass of the air sample.
The SI units are cubic meters per kilogram of dry air; other units are cubic feet per pound of dry
air.
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 7
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Specific humidity
Specific humidity is the ratio of water vapor to air (including water vapor and dry
air) in a particular mass. Specific humidity ratio is expressed as a ratio of kilograms of
water vapor, mw, per kilogram of air (including water vapor), mt .
Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of
water vapor in the mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a prescribed temperature.
Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage and is defined in the following
manner
is the relative humidity of the mixture being considered;
is the partial pressure of water vapor in the mixture; and
is the saturated vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the mixture. The
international symbols U and Uw, expressed in per cent, are gaining recognition.
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 8
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
5.5 SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Atmospheric air at 1.0132bar has a DBT of 30°C and a WBT of 25°C. Compute
i. The partial pressure of water vapour,
ii. The specific humidity,
iii. The dew point temperature,
iv. The relative humidity,
v. The degree of saturation,
vi. The density of air in the mixture,
vii. The density of vapour in the mixture and
viii. The enthalpy of the mixture. Use thermodynamic table.
Given data:
Dry bulb temperature, (td1) = 30°C
Wet bulb temperature, (td2) = 25°C
Atmospheric pressure, (Pb ) = 1.0132bar
Solution:
1. Humidity ratio, = 0.622 (Pv/ (Pb - Pv ))
Partial pressure vapour, Pv = Psw – ((Pb - Psw)( td - tw)/(1527.4 – 1.3tw))
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 9
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Where,
Psw - saturation pressure corresponding to WBT
Pb - barometric pressure = 1bar
td - Dry bulb temperature
tw - Wet bulb temperature
From steam table, for 25°C WBT, corresponding pressure is 0.03166bar
i.e. Psw = 0.03166bar
Pv = 0.03166 –((1.013 - 0.03166)( 32 - 26)/(1527.4 – 1.3x26))
Partial pressure of vapour,
Pv = 0.0296bar
Substituting Pv and Pb value in equation ɷ ,
ɷ = 0.622×(0.0296/(1 – 0.0296))
Specific humidity,
ɷ = 0.0189 kJ/kg of air
2. Dew point temperature ( tdp )
From steam table, we find that partial vapour pressure, = 0.03bar,
P
corresponding
v temperature is 24.1°C.
So, the dew point temperature tdp = 24.1°C
3. Relative humidity, ɸ
ɸ = Pv/ Ps
Where, Ps – Saturation pressure corresponding DBT
From steam table,
For 30°C DBT, corresponding pressure is 0.04242bar
i.e, Ps = 0.04242bar
ɸ = 0.0296/ 0.04242 = 0.6977 = 69.77%
4. Degree of saturation,µ
µ= (Pv/ Ps) ((Pb - Ps)/( Pb – Pv))
= (0.0296/ 0.04242) ((1.013- 0.0424)/( 1.013 – 0.0296))
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 10
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
µ= 0.6886
5. Specific volume ( va ) of
air: From gas law,
Pa va = Ra Ta
Where,
Gas constant, R = 0.287kJ/kg
Ta = td + 273 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Pa= Pb - Pv = 1.013- 0.0296 = 0.9834 bar
Density of air,
ρa = 1/ va = 1/88.428 = 0.011 kg/m3
6. Density of water vapour (ρv)
From steam table, corresponding to 30°C DBT, specific volume ( vg) is
32.929 m3/kg
ρv = 1/ vg = 1/32.929 = 0.0303 kg/m3
Vapour density of relative humidity,
ɸ = 0.6977
Vapour density, ρv = 0.0303×0.6977
= 0.0211 kg/m3
7. Total enthalpy
Enthalpy, h = cptd + ɷ hg
Where, cp- Specific heat = 1.005kJ/kgK
hg - Specific enthalpy of air corresponding DBT From steam table,
For 30°C DBT, corresponding specific enthalpy is 2430.7kJ/kg
h = (1.005x 30)+(0.0189x 2430.7)
h = 76.09 kJ/kg
2. An air conditioning system is to take in outdoor air at 283K and 30percent
relative humidity at a steady rate of 45 m3/min and to condition it to 298K
and
60% relative humidity. The outdoor air is first heated to 295K in the heating
section and then humidified by the injection of hot steam in the humidifying
section. Assuming the entire process takes place at a pressure of 100kPa,
determine (i) the rate of heat supply in the heating section and (ii) the mass flow
rate of the steam required in the humidifying section. [Nov/Dec 2009]
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 11
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Given data:
td1= 10°C
ɸ1= 30%
td3= 25°C
ɸ2= 60%
td2= 22°C
v = 45 m3/min
p = 100kPa
Solution:
Step 1:
The dry of air i.e 10°C of dry bulb temperature and 30% relative humidity is marked
on the psychrometric chart at point
1. The horizontal line is drawn up to 22°C to obtain point
2. The dry of air i.e. 25°C dry bulb temperature and 60% relative humidity is
marked on the psychrometric chart at point
3.
Step 2
Draw an inclined line from point 1 to 2. Read enthalpies and specific humidity
values at point 1,2 and 3 from psychrometric chart.
At point 1, enthalpy h 1 = 16.5kJ/kg
At point 2, enthalpy h2= 28kJ/kg
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 12
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Mass of air, ma= pv/RT = 0.923kg/s
Heated added,
Q = m(h2 – h1)
= 0.923 (28 – 16.5)
= 10.615kJ
Specific humidity,
ɷ2= 0.003kg/kg of dry air
ɷ3= 0.012kg/kg of dry air
Moisture added,
ɷ= 0.012 – 0.003 = 0.009kg/kg of dry air
We know that,
Specific humidity, ɷ
ɷ= mv/ ma
From the above eqn
Mass of steam mv = 0.0083kg/s
4. (i) What is the lowest temperature that air can attain in an evaporative cooler, if it
enters at 1atm, 302K and 40% relative humidity? [Nov/Dec 2008]
Given data:
p = 1bar
T = 302K
ɸ= 40%
Solution:
From steam table, corresponding to dry bulb temperature 29°C, saturation
pressure is 4.004kPa
Relative humidity,
ɸ = Pv/ Ps
0.4 = pv/ 4.004
ɸ= 1.601kPa
Lowest temperature that air attain in an evaporative cooler = 113.6°C
which is corresponding to pv= 1.601kPa.
(ii) Consider a room that contains air at 1atm, 308K and 40% relative humidity.
Using the psychrometric chart, determine: the specific humidity, the enthalpy, the wet
bulb temperature, the dew point temperature and the specific volume of air.
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 13
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Given data:
Pressure, p = 1atm
Relative humidity, ɸ = 40%
Temperature, T = 308K = 35°C
Solution:
Specific humidity,ɷ
From the point 1, draw a horizontal line with respect to temperature and relative
humidity. At this point specific humidity is 0.0138kJ/kg. i.e. ɷ = 0.0138kJ/kg
Enthalpy, h and Wet bulb temperature,
From the point 1, draw a inclined line along the constant wet bulb temperature
line till it cuts enthalpy line. At this point, enthalpy is 52.5kJ/kg and wet bulb
temperature is 23.9°C. i.e. h = 52.5kJ/kg and tw= 23.9°C
[Link]’s College of Engineering/[Link]’s Institute of Technology 14
ME 8391- Engineering Thermodynamics Mechanical Engineering 2018-2019
Dew point temperature, tdw and specific volume, v
Mark point 1 on the psychrometric chart by given dry bulb temperature
(35°C) and relative humidity 40%.
From point 1, draw a horizontal line to the left till it cuts saturation curve.
At that point, temperature is 20°C and specific volume is 0.8. i.e. tdw=
20°C and v = 0.89