Python - Complete - MSS - Google Docs
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Nagarjuna JayamangalaPython - Tutorial
*Python Topics:*
∙ ython definition, Introduction - Characteristics, Pros, Cons, Installation procedure.
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∙ Data Types, Operators, Variables.
∙ Access Modifiers, Decision-Making concepts, Control statements, Modules
∙ Loops, Functions, File I/O, Exceptions
∙ Monkey patching, Decorators, Multiprocessing, Multi-threading, JSON package
explanation, and usage
∙ OOPS - Class, Object, Inheritance, Polymorphism, Encapsulation, Constructor,
Abstraction
∙ Pandas, Numpy, XML programming, Sockets, Sending email...
∙ Regular expressions and their types, Web scraping
∙ API frameworks - Flask, Django, FastAPI, Streamlit, Starlette
∙ Servers - Werkzeug, Uvicorn, Waitress, Gunicorn. Monitoring Tool - Supervisor
Python Introduction
ython is one of the most popular, widely used programming language general-purpose
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interpreted,interactive,object-oriented,andhigh-levelprogramminglanguagethatfocuseson
codereadability.Pythonisadynamicallytypedandgarbage-collectedprogramminglanguage.a
Dutch Programmer Guido van Rossum created it during 1985- 1990 at the National Research
InstituteforMathematicsandComputerScienceintheNetherlands. .Becauseofitssimplersyntax,
extensive features and support of librariesitisusedmostly.Pythondoesnothaveanyrelationto
S nake.ThenameofthePythonprogramminglanguagewasinspiredbyaBritishComedyGroupMonty
Python a popular comedy series Monty Python's Flying Circuson BBC. .
Listed are some of the key advantages of learning Python:
ython is a general-purpose language - It is used in various areas of applications such as
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Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, web development, IoT, and more.. Examples of
general-purpose languages include Python,Java,C++,andJavaScript.Unlike SQLfordatabase
querying(Domain specific langauage DSL)
ython is Interpreted − Theinterpretertakesoneinstructionfromthesourcecodeatatime,
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translates it into machine code, and executes it. With this feature, it is easier to debug the
program
ython is Interactive − Python comes with an interactive shellthatworksontheprincipleof
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REPL(Read–Evaluate–Print–Loop). YoucanactuallysitataPythonpromptandinteract
with the interpreter directly to write your programs.
ython is Object-Oriented − Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of
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programming that encapsulates code within objects.
The shell presents a Python prompt >>>.
∙ pen the command prompt and type python there you can enter into python
o
interactive mode.
∙ You can type any valid Python expression and press Enter.
∙ The interactive mode is especially useful for getting familiar with a library and
testing out its functionality.
Features of Python
∙ ython is simple and Open Source which means it's available free of cost.
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∙ Python is versatile and can be used to create many different things like web
development (server-side), software development, mathematics, and system scripting.
∙ PythonhaspowerfuldevelopmentlibrariesincludingAI,ML,etc,andextensivesupport
libraries(NumPy for numerical calculations, Pandas for data analytics, etc).
∙ Python has elegant syntax and dynamic typing.
∙ Python is platform-independent Cross-platform, which means it works on different
platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
∙ Known for its readability, which means code is easier to write, understand and
maintain.
∙ Dynamicallytypedlanguage(Noneedtomentiondatatypebasedonthevalueassigned,
it takes data type)
∙ Object-oriented and Procedural Programming language
∙ High-level language, Interpreted Language.
∙ In Python, Indentation is used to define blocks of code. It tells the Python
interpreterthatagroupofstatementsbelongstoaspecificblock.Allstatements
with the same level of indentation are considered part of the same block
∙ AutomaticMemoryManagement:Pythonoffersautomaticmemorymanagement,
which means developers do not require to allocate or deallocate memory
manually. The memory manager of Python handles object creation, memory
allocation, garbage collection, and memory optimization automatically.
Con's of Python
erformance: Python is an interpreted language, which means that it can be slower than
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compiled languages like C or Java. This can be an issue for performance-intensive tasks.
emory consumption: Python can consume a lot of memory, especially when working with
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large datasets or running complex algorithms.
ynamically typed: Python is a dynamically typed language, which means that the types of
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variablescanchangeatruntime.Thiscanmakeitmoredifficulttocatcherrorsandcanleadto
bugs.
ackaging and versioning: Python has a large number of packages and libraries, which can
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sometimes lead to versioning issues and package conflicts.
Download and Install Python 3
Downloading Python on Windows
∙ open a browser and type[Link]
∙ Under the Python Releases for Windows find the Latest Python 3 Release
∙ click on Windows x86-64 executable installer for 64-bit or Windows x86 executable
installer for 32-bit.
Installing Python on Windows
∙ pen the downloads folder and click on Python that you have installed on your PC.
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∙ MakesuretomarkAddPython3.11toPATHotherwiseyouwillhavetodoitexplicitly.It
will start installing Python on Windows.
∙ Installation is complete
∙ Now go to Windows and type IDLE. This is Python Interpreter also called Python Shell.
∙ T o close the interactive session, type "quit()" or "exit()".
∙ To list out all the installed versions of Python use the command "where python"
Checking the installation is successful or not
Python is the standard and official implementation of Python, written in C.
C
It compiles Python source code to bytecode and executes it using the Python Virtual
Machine.
There are other implementations like PyPy (with JIT for high performance), Jython (runs
on JVM), IronPython (runs on .NET), and Cython (optimizes Python using C).
It’s called “C-Python” because:
👉 It iswritten in C language
👉 It compiles Python source code intobytecode (.pyc)
👉 It executes bytecode using thePVM (Python VirtualMachine)
So: CPython = Python compiler + PVM + runtime.
This is the version99% of the world uses
1. CPython (Official, default)
✔
Written in C
✔ Generates .pyc
✔ Uses PVM
✔ Most stable, most libraries support it
✔ Slower than Java but reliable
🔶
2. PyPy(Fast Python – JIT Compiler)
✔
Written in RPython
✔ HasJust-In-Time (JIT) compiler
✔ Much faster than CPython in long-running programs
✔ Great for loops, heavy functions
❌ Not all libraries support it (especially C-extensions)
💭 PyPy is Python with a turbocharger.
🔶
3. Jython(Python on Java)
✔
Written in Java
✔ Runs on JVM
✔ Allows mixing Python + Java
✔ Can import Java libraries directly
❌ Slower development
❌ Not fully updated to latest Python versions
💭 Good when working with Java ecosystems.
🔶
4. IronPython(Python on .NET)
✔
Written in C#
✔ Runs on .NET CLR
✔ Can use C#, .NET libraries
❌ Limited community support
❌ Not the latest Python version
💭 Ideal for Microsoft/.NET environments.
🔶
5. Cython
✔
Not a full implementation
✔ Helps convert Python code → C forspeed
✔ Mostly used to optimize performance
✔ Used heavily in machine learning libraries (NumPy, Pandas internals)
💭 Cython is like giving Python a gym membership to get stronger.
ython is both a programming language a nd a scripting [Link] is a high-level,
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general-purpose language, so we use it to build complete applications like APIs or data
pipelines.
tthesametime,Pythoncanalsobeusedasascriptinglanguageforautomation,quicktasks,
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and running scripts without compilation.
irtualEnvironments:Pythonsupportsvirtualenvironments(venv)whichhelpsisolating
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thedependenciesfordifferentprojects.Thisalsohelpspreventingpackageconflictsand
ensuring each project runs with the required library versions.
EP8:Python'sofficialstyleguidepromotesbestpracticessuchasmeaningfulvariable
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names, consistent indentation, proper spacing, and a 79-character line limit for better
code readability and maintainability.
ip is the Python Package Installer. It is used to install,upgrade,andmanagePythonlibraries
p
from the Python Package Index (PyPI). Tools like [Link] and virtual environments
depend on pip for dependency management.
urpose
P ommand
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Run a Python file python [Link]
Run with Python 3 python3 [Link]
Open Python shell python
Check Python version python --version
Run a module python -m module_name
Disassemble to view
python -m dis [Link]
bytecode
urpose
P ommand
C
Install a package pip install package_name
Install specific version pip install package==1.2.3
Upgrade a package pip install --upgrade package_name
Uninstall package pip uninstall package_name
List installed packages pip list
Show package details pip show package_name
Create requirements file pip freeze > [Link]
Install from requirements
pip install -r [Link]
file
urpose
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Create virtual
python -m venv venv
environment
Activate venv (Windows) venv\Scripts\activate
ctivate venv
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source venv/bin/activate
(Mac/Linux)
Deactivate venv deactivate
Difference Between Python and C++
The following table summarizes the differences between Python and C++
Criteria Python C++
ython is an interpreted-based
P ++ is a compiler-based
C
programming language. Python programming language. C++
Execution
programs are interpreted by an programs are compiled by a
interpreter. compiler.
ython is a dynamic-typed
P
Typing C++ is a static-typed language.
language.
ython is a highly portable
P ++ is not a portable language,
C
language, code written and code written and executed on a
Portability
executed on a system can be easily system cannot be run on another
run on another system. system without making changes.
ython provides a garbage
P
++ does not provide garbage
C
collection feature. You do not need
arbage
G collection. You have to take care of
to worry about the memory
collection freeing memories. It is manual in
management. It is automatic in
C++.
Python.
ython's syntaxes are very easy to
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Syntax C++'s syntaxes are tedious.
read, write, and understand.
erformanc P
P ython's execution performance is ++ codes are faster than Python
C
e slower than C++'s. codes.
Python's application areas are ++'s application areas are
C
pplication
A
achine learning, web applications, embedded systems, device
m
areas
and more. drivers, and more.
Python - Script Mode Programming
way to execute a Python script
e assume that you have Python interpreter available in /usr/bin directory. Now,
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try to run this program as follows −
Different Aspects of Python Syntax:
The following are the different aspects of Python Syntax:
• Variables
•
Identifiers
•
Keywords
•
Comments
•
Input from Users
Python Variables
ariables in Pythonare used to store data values. Unlike other languages, Python
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variables do not require explicit declaration of type; they are dynamically typed. This
eans thatthetypeofvariableisdeterminedatruntimebasedonthevalueassignedto
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it.
Output:
10 -> <class 'int'>
TpointTech -> <class 'str'>
Identifiersare names used forvariables,functions,classes,andotherentitiesinPython.
They must follow specific rules to be valid:
1. It can contain letters (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9), and underscores (_).
2. It cannot start with a digit.
3. We cannot use Python keywords as identifiers.
4. Case-sensitive (MyVar and myvar are different identifiers).
5. It should be descriptive and follow naming conventions (e.g., using
snake_case for variables and functions and CamelCase for class names).
Python Keywords
eywordsarereservedwordsinPythonthatcannotbeusedasvariablenames.Examples
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include if, else, while, for, def, class, import, etc. Python has35 keywords(Python 3.10+).
eyword
K Meaning / Use
False Boolean false value
True Boolean true value
one
N epresents null / no value
R
and Logical AND operator
or Logical OR operator
not Logical NOT operator
as Used to create alias (modules, exceptions)
Debugging check; raises error if condition
assert
fails
reak
b Exit loop immediately
continue Skip to next loop iteration
class Define a class
def Define a function or method
del Delete variable/object/item
elif Else-if condition
else Else condition block
except Catch an exception
finally Always executed after try–except
for Loop keyword
while Loop keyword
from Import specific module parts
import Import module
global Declare global variable inside function
nonlocal Access outer function variable
if Conditional statement
in Membership operator (value in sequence)
is Identity comparison (checks object identity)
lambda Create anonymous function
pass Placeholder; does nothing
r aise aise an exception manually
R
return Return a value from function
try Try block for exception handling
ith
w ontext manager (auto resource handling)
C
yield Return generator value
Python Comments
omments inPythonareusedtoexplaincodeandmakeitmore[Link]are
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ignored by the Python interpreter, meaning they do not affect the execution of the
program.
Taking Input from User in Python
InPython,weusetheinput()functiontotakeuserinput.Theinputisalwaysreceivedasa
string, even if the user enters a number.
Casting Python Variables
ypecastingreferstotheprocessofconvertingthevalueofonedatatypeintoanother.
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Python providesseveralbuilt-infunctionstofacilitatecasting,includingint(),float()and
str() among others.
❌
1.int("10.5")→ Error
"10.5" is afloating-point string, not an integerstring.
int() can only convert:
• "10" → ✔ valid integer
Not:
• " 10.5" →❌ contains a dot
• "5e3" → ❌ exponential form
• "abc" → ❌ not numeric
Real reason:
int() expectswhole number characters only.
❌
2.int("abc")→ Error
Reason
" abc" isnot numeric.
Python has no way to convert alphabets to an integer.
❌
3.float("abc")→ Error
Reason
float() expects numeric text:
• " 10"
• "10.5"
• "2e5"
"abc" is not numeric → conversion not defined.
❌
4.list(10)orlist(10.5)→ TypeError
Reason
list() only convertsiterableobjects into a list.
Iterables:
Strings, tuples, lists, sets, dictionaries.
on-iterables:
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Integers, floats, booleans.
10 is not something Python can loop over → ❌
❌
5.tuple(10)→ Error
Same reason as list.
10 is not iterable → Python cannot break it into pieces.
❌
6.set(10)→ Error
Again, sets requireiterables.
s et("abc") → works
set([1,2,3]) → works
set(10) → ❌ non-iterable
❌
7.dict("abc")→ Error
Reason
A dictionary needskey-value pairs.
ictionary expectspair-likestructure:
• list/tuple of 2-element items
• {key: value}
ype
T
What It Expects (Works For) Not Possible (Fails For)
Cast
- Integer strings → "10" - Floats → 10.5 - Float strings → "10.5" -
int()
(converted to 10) - Boolean → True/False Non-numeric strings → "abc"
- Numeric strings → "10", "10.5" - ints →
float() - Non-numeric strings → "xyz"
10 - booleans → True, False
str() nything→ numbers, lists, tuples
A ✔ Never fails
Any object (empty → False, non-empty →
bool() ✔ Never fails
True)
list() Iterable objects → "abc", (1,2,3), [1,2] Non-iterables → 10, 10.5, True
tuple() Iterable objects → "hi", [1,2] Non-iterables → 10, 10.5
set() Iterable objects → "hello", [1,2,3] Non-iterables → 10, 10.5
Iterable ofkey-value pairs→ - Strings → "abc" - Non-pair lists →
dict()
[("a",1),("b",2)] [1,2,3] - Non-iterables → 10
One-Line Summary
• int() / float()→ needs numeric text
• list() / tuple() / set()→ needs iterable
• dict()→ needs iterable of 2-value items
• str() / bool()→ always works
Do list, tuple, set allow duplicates?
Allows
Type Ordered? Mutable?
uplicates?
D
list ✔ Yes ✔ Yes ✔ Yes
tupl
e
✔ Yes ✔ Yes ❌ No
set ❌ No ❌
✔
Mutable (but elements must be
Unordered immutable)
Python Collections Comparison Table
eature
F List Tuple Set ictionary
D
yntax
S [ ] ( ) { } { key: value }
Ordered ✔ Yes ✔ Yes ❌ No
✔ Yes (Python
3.7+)
llows
A
✔ Yes ✔ Yes ❌ No
🔶 Keys ❌ ,
Duplicates Values ✔
Mutable ✔ Yes ❌ No
✔
Yes (but elements
must be immutable)
✔ Yes
Indexing ✔ Yes ✔ Yes ❌ No
✔
Keys can be
accessed
Slicing ✔ Yes ✔ Yes ❌ No ❌ No
ynamic data,
D ixed data, U
F nique items, fast ey–value
K
Use Case
frequent updates read-only membership test mapping
• amelcase −Firstletterisalowercase,butfirstletterofeachsubsequentword
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is in uppercase. For example: kmPerHour, pricePerLitre
• ascal case − First letter of each word is in uppercase. For example:
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KmPerHour, PricePerLitre
• Snake case− Use single underscore (_) character to separate words. For
example: km_per_hour, price_per_litre
Access Modifiers :
ython is an object-oriented programming language that allows you t o create
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classes and objects. Encapsulation is one of the core principles of OPPs. To
achieve encapsulation, we use private variables andmethods.
ythondoesNOThavetrueaccessmodifierslikeJavaorC++.Instead,itusesnaming
P
conventions.
1. Public
nything without underscores
A
Accessible from anywhere: inside class, outside class, subclass, modules.
2. Protected
Prefix with one underscore _
Used to indicate: “internal use – don’t access directly”
But still accessible—Python DOES NOT restrict it.
Protected variable can be accessed within the class and its subclasses.
3. Private(name-mangled)
Prefix withtwo underscores__
ython performsname mangling→ internally changesname to
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_ClassName__variable.
This prevents accidental access
Private variables are only accessible within the class they are defined in.
_init__ is the constructor in [Link] runs automaticallyWhenever you create an
_
object:
obj = MyClass() Python automatically calls: MyClass.__init__(obj)
self representsthe current object (instance) calling the method.
Python Data Types
he data types are used to define the type of a variable. It represents the type of
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data we are going to store in a variable and determines what operations can be
done on it. Since Python is dynamically typed, the data type of a variable is
determined at runtime based on the assigned value.
Types of Data Types in Python
Python has 7 core built-in data types, grouped into categories.
Numeric: int, float, complex
SequenceType: string, list, tuple
MappingType: dict
Boolean: bool
Set Type: set, frozenset
Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview
None Type:None
🟩
1. Numeric Types
ython numbers represent data that has a numeric value. A numeric value can be an
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integer, a floating number or even a complex number. These values are defined as int,
float and complex classes.
ype
T Description xample
E
int Whole numbers 10, -5, 1000
ecimal numbers,characters e E 1
D 0.5,
float
allowed positive or negative 3.14,10.5e4
omple Numbers with real + imaginary
c
3+4j
x parts
🟪
2. Sequence Types
equence is a collection data type. It is an ordered collection of items. Items in the
S
sequence have a positional index starting with 0.
ython stringis a sequence of one or more Unicodecharacters, enclosed in single,
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double or triple quotation marks (also called inverted commas). Python strings are
immutable which means when you perform an operation on strings, you always
produce a new string object of the same type, rather than mutating an existing
string.
ython Listsare the most versatile compound datatypes. A Python list contains
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items separated by commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some
extent, Python lists are similar to arrays in C. One difference between them is that
all the items belonging to a Python list can be of different data type where as C
array can store elements related to a particular data type.
ython tupleis another sequence data type that issimilar to a list. A Python tuple
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consists of a number of values separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples
are enclosed within parentheses (...).
◦ s in case of a list, an item in the tuple may also be a list, a tuple itself or
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an object of any other Python class.
◦ o form a tuple, use of parentheses is optional. Data items separated by
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comma without any enclosing symbols are treated as a tuple by default.
Ordered Mutable Allows
Type Example
? ? Duplicates?
str ✔ ❌ ✔ " hello"
list ✔ ✔ ✔ [1,2,3]
t uple✔ ❌ ✔ (1,2,3)
These support indexing and slicing.
🟧
3. Set Types
etis a Python implementation of set as defined inMathematics. A set in Python is
S
a collection, but is not an indexed or ordered collection as string, list or tuple. An
object cannot appear more than once in a set, whereas in List and Tuple, same
object can appear more than once.
set can store only immutableobjects such as number(int, float, complex or
A
bool), string or tuple. If you try to put a list or a dictionary in the set collection,
Python raises a TypeError.
Ordered Mutable Allows
Type Example
? ? Duplicates?
set ❌
✔ ❌ {1,2,3}
frozense
t
❌
❌ ❌ frozenset([1,2,3])
Used for unique elements and fast membership checks.
🟦 4. Mapping Type
ython dictionary is like associative arrays or hashes found in Perl and consist
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of key:valuepairs. The pairs are separated by commaand put inside curly
brackets {}. To establish mapping between key and value, the semicolon':' symbol
is put between the two.
Type Description Example
ey–value
K
dict {"a":1, "b":2}
pairs
👉
Keys must be unique and immutable.
👉
Values can be anything.
🟨
5. Boolean Type
ython booleantype is one of built-in data types which represents one of the two
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values either Trueor False. Python bool()functionallows you to evaluate the
value of any expression and returns either True or False based on the
expression.
alue
V Meaning
True / Subclass of int (True=1,
False False=0)
Used in conditions, loops, comparisons.
🟫 6. None Type
ython's none type is represented by the "
P nonetype ." It is an object of its own data
type. The represents the null type of values or absence of a value
nonetype
.
Type Meaning Example
Represents no value / empty
None x = None
state
Often used for default return values.
🌟
Python Collections – Master Comparison Table
ata
D Mutable Allows
Ordered? Notes
Type ? Duplicates?
list ✔
Yes ✔ Yes ✔ Yes est for dynamic items
B
tuple ✔ Yes ❌ No ✔ Yes Faster than list; safe data
str ✔ Yes ❌ No ✔ Yes Immutable sequence of chars
dict
✔ Yes (Python
✔ Yes
✔ Values❌ Keys must be unique &
3.7+) Keys immutable
set ❌ No ❌
✔ Yes No Stores only unique elements
❌
frozenset No ❌ ❌
No No Immutable version of set
bytes ✔ Yes ❌ No ✔ Yes Immutable sequence of bytes
bytearray✔ Yes ✔ Yes ✔ Yes Mutable byte sequence
Python Operators
Python operatorsare special symbols used to performspecific operations on one or
more operands. The variables, values, or expressionscan be used as operands.
• perators: Special symbols like -, + , * , /, etc.
O
• Operands: Value on which the operator is applied.
• Unary operators: Python operators that require oneoperand to
perform a specific operation are known as unary operators.
• Binary operators: Python operators that require twooperands to
perform a specific operation are known as binary operators.
• Operands: Variables, values, or expressions that areused with the
operator to perform a specific operation.
Major 7 types of Operators used in Python are as follows:
1. rithmetic Operators
A
2. Comparison Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Membership Operators
7. Identity Operators
🔹
1. Arithmetic Operators
Python Arithmetic operatorsare used to perform basicmathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.
perator
O Meaning xample Result
E
+ Addition 10 + 5 15
- Subtraction 10 - 5 5
* ultiplication
M 0 * 5
1 0
5
/ Division (float) 10 / 4 2.5
// Floor division 10 // 4 2
Modulus
% 10 % 3 1
(remainder)
** Exponentiation 2 ** 3 8
🔹 2. Relational / Comparison Operators
ython Comparison operatorscompare the values oneither side of them and decide
P
the relation among them. They are also called Relational operators.
Exampl
Operator Meaning Output
e
=
= qual to
E 5 == 5 True
!= Not equal to 5 != 3 True
> Greater than 5 > 3 True
< Less than 3 < 5 True
Greater or
>= >= 5
5 True
equal
<= Less or equal 3 <= 5 True
🔹 3. Logical Operators
ython logical operatorsare used to combile two ormore conditions and check the
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final result. There are following logical operators supported by Python language.
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then
perator
O Meaning xample
E esult
R
and True if both are true True and False False
True if at least one is
or True or False True
true
not Negates result not True False
🔹
4. Assignment Operators
ython Assignment operatorsare used to assign valuesto variables. Following is a
P
table which shows all Python assignment operators.
perator
O Meaning xample Equivalent to
E
= Assign x = 5 —
+= Add & assign x += 3 x = x + 3
ubtract &
S
-= x -= 2 x = x - 2
assign
ultiply &
M
*= x *= 2 x = x * 2
assign
/= Divide & assign x /= 2 = x / 2
x
//= Floor divide x //= 2 x = x // 2
%= Modulus x %= 3 x = x % 3
**= Power x **= 3 x = x ** 3
🔹
5. Bitwise Operators
Python Bitwise operatorworks on bits and performsbit by bit operation. These
operators are used to compare binary numbers.
Exampl Binary
Operator Meaning
e Result
& AND 5 & 3 1
` ` OR `5
^ XOR 5 ^ 3 6
~ NOT ~5 -6
<< Left shift 5 << 1 10
Right
>> 5 >> 1 2
shift
🔹
6. Membership Operators
Python's membership operatorstest for membershipin a sequence, such as strings,
lists, or tuples.
perator
O Meaning Example utput
O
in True if value present 3
in [1,2,3] True
True if value not
not in 4 not in [1,2,3] True
present
7. Identity Operators
Python identity operatorscompare the memory locationsof two objects.
Operator Meaning Example utput
O
Same memory Depend
is x is y
location s
is not Not same object x is not y Depend
s
Control Structures
ontrol structures determine theflowof a Pythonprogram. They decidewhenandhow
C
blocks of code should execute.
Python has3 types of control structures:
1. onditional/ Decision-making (Selection)→ if, elif,else
C
2. Looping (Iteration)→ for, while
3. Loop Control statements→ break, continue, pass
🟦
1. conditional/Decision-Making Statements
Conditional statements in Python are used to execute certain blocks of code based on
specific conditions.
• ifStatement Executes only if the condition isTrue.
• if–elseStatementRuns one block if condition isTrue, another if False.
• if – elif – elseStatementUsed for multiple conditions.
• Nested if- if inside another if.
The match Statement
ython supports Match-Casestatement, which can alsobe used as a part of
P
decision making. If a pattern matches the expression, the code under that case will
execute.
Ternary Conditional Statement
ternary conditional statement is a compact way to write an if-else condition in a single
A
line. It’s sometimes called a "conditional expression."
Loops or Iteration Statements
Loops in Python are used to repeat actions efficiently
• f orLoop - Iterates over sequences: list, tuple, string, set, dictionary or range. It
allow to execute a block of code repeatedly, once for each item in the sequence.
• whileLoop -The while looprepeatedly executes atarget statement as long
as a given boolean expression is true.
• Nested Loops – Loops within loops
Loop Control Statements
oop control statements change execution from their normal sequence. When execution
L
leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.
Python supports the following control statements.
• break – Stops the loop immediately
• continue – Skip current iteration of loop and move o next iteration
• pass – Do nothing (placeholder)
Python - Functions
Afunctionis a block of reusable code that performsa specific task.
Advantages
• Functions help in the reusability of code
• It also reduces the code length.
• It improves the readability of code.
Defining a Function
calling a function
Types of functions
• Built-in Functions: Python standard functions thatcan be used anytime.
• User-defined Functions:Functions created by the users on the basis of
their requirements.
Function Arguments
Function
are the values or variables passed into a functionwhenitis
arguments
called. The behavior of a function often depends on the arguments passed to it.
Types of Function arguments
•
Positional or Required Arguments
•
Keyword Arguments
•
Default Arguments
•
Positional-only Arguments
•
Keyword-only arguments
•
Arbitrary or Variable-length Arguments
Positional or Required Arguments
equiredargumentsaretheargumentspassedtoafunctionincorrectpositionalorder.
R
Here, the number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with the
function definition, otherwise the code gives a syntax error.
Keyword Arguments
Keyword
are related to the function calls. When you use keyword
arguments
rguments in a function call, the caller identifies theargumentsbytheparameter
a
name.
Default Arguments
A
default is anargumentthatassumesadefaultvalueifavalueisnot
argument
provided in the function call for that argument.
Positional-only arguments
hose arguments that can onlybespecifiedbytheirpositioninthefunctioncallis
T
called as
Positional-only arguments . They are defined by placing a "/" in the
function's parameter list after all positional-only parameters. This feature was
introduced with the release of Python 3.8.
Keyword-only arguments
ose arguments that must be specified by their namewhilecallingthefunctionis
h
known as Keyword-only arguments . Theyaredefinedbyplacinganasterisk("*")
in the function's parameter list before any keyword-only parameters. This type of
argumentcanonlybepassedtoafunctionasakeywordargument,notapositional
argument.
Arbitrary or Variable-length Arguments
args → multiple positional arguments
kwargs → multiple keyword arguments
Lambda Functions (Anonymous / One-line)
Recursion (Function calling itself)
Pass by Reference vs Value
ython does not use pass-by-value or pass-by-reference.
P
It usespass-by-object-reference:
• utable objects → changes reflect outside
M
• Immutable objects → changes do NOT reflect outside
PYTHON BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS
1. Type Conversion Functions
unction
F urpose
P
int() convert to integer
float() convert to float
create complex
complex()
number
ool()
b convert to boolean
str() convert to string
list() convert to list
tuple() c onvert to tuple
set() convert to set
convert list/tuple to
dict()
dict
create immutable
bytes()
bytes
bytearray() mutable bytes
memoryview() access internal buffer
2.Mathematics Functions
Function urpose
P
Absolute
abs(x) non-negative
value
ound to n digits;
R
round(x, n) n<0 → left of
decimal
ow(x, y)
p same as x**y
sum(iterable) sum of items
min(iterable) smallest
max(iterable) largest
Returns
divmod(a, b) (quotient,
remainder)
in(x)
b convert to binary
oct(x) convert to octal
hex(x) convert to hex
3. Sequence Handling Functions
Function urpose
P
len() length of iterable
sorted() returns sorted list
reversed() reverse iterator
numerate()
e r eturns index + value
range() generate sequence
zip() combine sequences
apply function to each
map(func, iterable)
item
filter(func, iterable) filter items
ll(iterable)
a rue if all items True
T
any(iterable) True if at least one True
4.Input / Output Functions
unction
F Purpose
print() isplay output
d
input() take input
string
format()
formatting
open() file handling
5.Object & Attribute Functions
Function urpose
P
id(obj) memory address
type(obj) type of object
isinstance(obj, class) instance check
issubclass(A, B) subclass check
list
dir(obj)
attributes/methods
v ars(obj) object __dict__
getattr(obj, name) get attribute
setattr(obj, name, value) set attribute
hasattr(obj, name) check attribute
delattr(obj, name) delete attribute
6.Functional Programming Helpers
unction
F urpose
P
callable(obj) check if callable
valuate string
e
eval(expr)
expression
xec(code)
e xecute Python code
e
globals() global symbol table
locals() local namespace
7. Utility Functions
unction
F Purpose
help() pen Python help
o
escape non-ASCII
ascii()
characters
repr() string representation
ash()
h ash of object
h
object() base object
super() parent class helper
8. Class & Memory Functions
Function urpose
P
create class
classmethod()
method
create static
staticmethod()
method
property() create property
Python Modules and Packages
1. Modules
module is a file containing Python code: functions, classes, or variables. It helps
A
organize code into reusable files.
reating a Module
C
[Link]
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"
Using a Module
import mymodule
print([Link]("Bhavani"))
Other ways to import:
from mymodule import greet
print(greet("Bhavani"))
import mymodule as mm
print([Link]("Bhavani"))
Built-in Modules
• math, random, datetime, os, sys, re (regex), json, csv
Example:
import math
print([Link](16)) # 4.0
2. Packages
A package is a collection of modules organized in directories.
Structure:
mypackage/
__init__.py
[Link]
[Link]
Using Packages
from mypackage import module1
[Link]()
3. Python Standard Library Highlights
• s – interacting with the operating system
o
• sys – system-specific parameters and functions
• datetime – working with date & time
• math – advanced mathematical functions
• random – random number generation
• json – JSON parsing & writing
• re – regular expressions
File Handling in Python
ile handling in Python involves interacting with files on your computer to read data
F
from them or write data to them.It provides severalbuilt-in functions and methods
for creating, opening, reading, writing, and closing files.
1. File Operations
Open file
#
f = open("[Link]", "r") # r-read, w-write, a-append, rb/rb+ for binary
content = [Link]()
print(content)
[Link]()
2. Writing to a file
with open("[Link]", "w") as f: # automatically closes file
[Link]("Hello Python\n")
Exception Handling in Python
hen a Python program meets an error, it stops the execution of the rest of the program.
W
An error in Python might be either an error in the syntax of an expression or a Python
exception.
What is Exception Handling?
• xception:An error that occurs during program execution.
E
• Exception handlingallows a program to continue runningeven after an error
occurs.
• Without handling, the programcrashes.
2. Keywords in Exception Handling
eyword
K Purpose
try Block of code to test for exceptions
except Block to handle the exception
else Executes if no exception occurs
xecutesalways, whether exception occurs
E
finally
or not
raise Used to manually raise an exception
4. Common Built-in Exceptions
xception Name
E ause
C
ZeroDivisionError Division by zero
ValueError Invalid type conversion
IndexError ist index out of range
L
KeyError Dictionary key not found
Unsupported operation for data
TypeError
type
ileNotFoundError
F File does not exist
ImportError Module not found
5. Multiple Exceptions in One Block
try:
x = int(input("Enter a number: "))
y = int(input("Enter another number: "))
print(x / y)
except (ZeroDivisionError, ValueError) as e:
print("Error occurred:", e)
6. Raising an Exception
• You canmanually raise an exceptionusing raise.
ge = int(input("Enter your age: "))
a
if age < 18:
raise ValueError("Age must be 18 or above")
7. Exception Handling with Files
try:
f = open("non_existing_file.txt", "r")
content = [Link]()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found!")
finally:
print("Execution finished")
8. Custom Exception
class MyError(Exception):
pass
try:
x = int(input("Enter a positive number: "))
if x < 0:
raise MyError("Negative number not allowed")
except MyError as e:
print(e)
Python String Methods – Complete Table
ethod
M Description Example
ase Conversion
C
onverts string to
C
[Link]() "hello".upper() → 'HELLO'
uppercase
Converts string to
[Link]() "HELLO".lower() → 'hello'
lowercase
" hello world".capitalize() → 'Hello
[Link]() Capitalizes first letter
world'
apitalizes first letter
C
[Link]() " hello world".title() → 'Hello World'
of each word
Swaps uppercase ↔
[Link]() "HeLLo".swapcase() → 'hEllO'
lowercase
Whitespace Handling
emoves
R
[Link]() leading/trailing " hello ".strip() → 'hello'
spaces
Removes leading
[Link]() " hello".lstrip() → 'hello'
spaces
Removes trailing
[Link]() "hello ".rstrip() → 'hello'
spaces
Searching & Finding
eturns lowest index
R
[Link](sub) "hello".find("l") → 2
of substring or -1
Returns highest index
[Link](sub) "hello".rfind("l") → 3
of substring or -1
Like find(), raises
[Link](sub) ValueError if not "hello".index("e") → 1
found
ight-most index,
R
[Link](sub) raises ValueError if "hello".rindex("l") → 3
not found
Counts occurrences
[Link](sub) "hello".count("l") → 2
of substring
Checks if string starts
[Link](sub) "hello".startswith("he") → True
with substring
Checks if string ends
[Link](sub) "hello".endswith("lo") → True
with substring
odification /
M
Replacement
eplaces all
R
[Link](old, new) "hello".replace("l", "L") → 'heLLo'
occurrences
Concatenates iterable
[Link](iterable) with string as ",".join(["a","b"]) → 'a,b'
separator
Splits string into list
[Link](sep) "a,b,c".split(",") → ['a','b','c']
using separator
[Link](sep) Right split "a,b,c".rsplit(",", 1) → ['a,b','c']
"line1\nline2".splitlines() →
[Link]() Splits on line breaks
['line1','line2']
Splits into tuple: "hello world".partition(" ") →
[Link](sep)
before, sep, after ('hello',' ','world')
"hello world".rpartition(" ") →
[Link](sep) Right partition
('hello',' ','world')
Checking / Testing
rue if all characters
T
[Link]() "abc123".isalnum() → True
are alphanumeric
rue if all characters
T
[Link]() "abc".isalpha() → True
are letters
rue if all characters
T
[Link]() "123".isdigit() → True
are digits
rue if all characters
T
[Link]() "²³".isnumeric() → True
are numeric
rue if all characters
T
[Link]() " 123".isdecimal() → True
are decimal
True if all cased
[Link]() characters are "hello".islower() → True
lowercase
[Link]() True if all cased "HELLO".isupper() → True
c haracters are
uppercase
True if string contains
[Link]() " ".isspace() → True
only whitespace
True if string is in title
[Link]() "Hello World".istitle() → True
case
True if string is a valid
[Link]() "var1".isidentifier() → True
Python identifier
Formatting
enters string with fill
C
[Link](width, fillchar) "hi".center(6,"*") → '**hi**'
character
s [Link](width, fillchar) Left-justify " hi".ljust(6,"*") → 'hi****'
[Link](width, fillchar) Right-justify "hi".rjust(6,"*") → '****hi'
[Link](width) Pad with zeros "42".zfill(5) → '00042'
"Hello {}".format("World") → 'Hello
[Link]() String formatting
World'
s [Link]() / "abc".translate([Link]("a","x
Map characters
[Link]() ")) → 'xbc'
Encoding / Decoding
ncode string to
E
[Link](encoding) "hello".encode("utf-8") → b'hello'
bytes
Decode bytes to
[Link](encoding) b'hello'.decode("utf-8") → 'hello'
string
FLASK
lask is a lightweight and powerful web framework for Python. It’s often called a
F
"micro-framework" because it provides the essentials for web development without
unnecessary complexity. Unlike Django, which comes with built-in features like
authentication and an admin panel, Flask keeps things minimal and lets us add only
what we [Link] was developed by Armin Ronacher. Flask Python is based on the
WSGI(Web Server Gateway Interface) toolkit andJinja2template engine.
Advantages of Flask
• lask is a lightweight backend framework with minimal dependencies.
F
• Flask is easy to learn because its simple and intuitive API makes it easy to learn
nd use for beginners.
a
• Flask is a flexible Framework because it allows you to customize and extend the
framework to suit your needs easily.
• Flask can be used with any database like:- SQL and NoSQL and with any
Frontend Technology such as React or Angular.
• Flask is great for small to medium projects that do not require the complexity of a
large framework.
Getting Started With Flask
from flask import Flask
app = Flask(__name__) # Flask constructor
# A decorator used to tell the application
# which URL is associated function
@[Link]('/')
def hello():
return 'HELLO'
if __name__=='__main__':
[Link](debug=True)
• lask(__name__): Creates the Flask app.
F
• @[Link]('/'): Defines the home route (/).
• def hello(): creates a function that is bound with '/' route and returns "HELLO"
when the root page is accessed.
• [Link](debug=True): runs the app in debug mode. It ensure that app is not need
to restart manually if any changes are made in code.
ne alternate way of doing this is by using "add_url_rule()" function of an application
O
object, it can also be used to bind URL with the function similar to the above example.
def hello_world():
return ‘hello world’
app.add_url_rule(‘/’, ‘hello’, hello_world)
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