MATH 214 Linear Algebra Tutorial 2 9–10 March 2026

(Afrikaans op bl. 5)

Abstract vector spaces

1. Determine whether the given set, together with the specified operations
of addition and scalar multiplication, is a vector space. If not, list all the
axioms that fail to hold.
 
x
(a) The set of all vectors ∈ R2 with x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 (the first quadrant)
y
with the usual vector addition and scalar multiplication.
 
x
(b) The set of all vectors ∈ R2 with the usual vector addition and
x
scalar multiplication.
 
x
(c) The set of all vectors ∈ R2 with xy ≥ 0 (the union of the
y
first and third quadrants) with the usual vector addition and scalar
multiplication.
(d) R2 , with the usual scalar multiplication but addition defined by
     
x1 x2 x1 + x2 + 1
+ = .
y1 y2 y1 + y2 + 1

(e) R2 , with the usual addition but scalar multiplication defined by

   
x cx
c = .
y y

2. Suppose V is a vector space, where v, w ∈ V . In the following calculation,

identify which rules of a vector space is used in each step.


(−1) · 2 · v + (−1) · w + 2 · v



= (−1) · (2 · v) + (−1) · (−1) · w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v) + 1 · w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v + w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v + w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v + 2 · v + w


= (−2) · v + 2 · v + w
= (0) · v + w
=0+w
=w

1
3. Prove the following statements. State clearly when and where you use any
of the rules of a vector space.
(a) For any v ∈ V we have v + v = 2v.
(b) Suppose that v ∈ V satisfies 5v = 2v. Prove that v = 0.
(c) For any scalar c we have c · 0 = 0.
(d) For any non-zero v ∈ V and any scalars c, d with c ̸= d we have
cv ̸= dv. This problem has an interesting consequence. Any vector
space with one non-zero element must have infinitely many elements.
Can you see why?

4. Suppose that V is a vector space and v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ V .

(a) Simplify the linear combination

2(v1 + 2v2 − v3 ) + (−1)(v1 − v2 + v3 ) + (−2)(−v1 + v2 + 2v3 ).

(b) Compare your answer with the calculation of

     
1 1 −1
2  2  + (−1) −1 + (−2)  1  .
−1 1 2

(c) Then compare it to

2(1 + 2x − x2 ) + (−1)(1 − x + x2 ) + (−2)(−1 + x + 2x2 ).

   
1 0
Note: We could deduce (b) from (a) by setting v1 = 0, v2 = 1
  0 0
0
and v3 = 0 and we could deduce (c) from (a) by setting v1 = 1,
1
v2 = x and v3 = x2 . Thus, (a) is more general and encapsulates
both (b) and (c) as special cases. Thus, the extra difficulty in the
abstractness of (a) is compensated for by the fact that it is more
general and can be applied in many other contexts. Later in the
course we will see ‘how to go backwards’ and deduce the general
result from a calculation in R3 .
(d) Can you think of another context where the same idea could be ap-
plied?
5. (a) Suppose that v1 , v2 , v3 are three elements in any vector space and
suppose that they are linearly independent. Show that the elements
v1 + v2 + v3 , v1 + v2 and v2 + v3 are also linearly independent.

2
 (b) You might apply it in the following case. It is given that the matrices
     
1 0 0 0 0 1
, and
0 0 0 1 1 0

are linearly independent in the vector space M2,2 of 2 × 2 matrices.

Use (a) to conclude that
     
1 1 1 0 0 1
, and
1 1 0 1 1 1

are also linearly independent.

6. (a) Suppose that v1 , v2 are two elements of a vector space V that span
V . Show that the elements v1 + v2 and v1 + 2v2 also span V .
 
1
(b) You might apply this as follows: It is given that the vectors  0 
  −1
0
and 1 span the plane in R2 defined by x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0. Use (a)
2
   
1 1
to show that the vectors 1 and 2 also span that plane.
1 3
Note: The last two problems are very abstract and may take a lot of
thinking to get used to, but they provide excellent practice in making
the connection between an abstract statement and a concrete realisation
of it. You may wish to take some time to come up with more examples
like it. The examples also show that anything you can do with linear
combinations (e.g. independence, span, and many other things that we
will treat later in the course), you can also do in an abstract setting and
“translate” it to another context where linear combinations make sense.

Subspaces
7. For each of the following vector spaces V and subsets W , determine
whether W is a subspace of V .
(a) V = R2 , W = {(x, y) ∈ V | x + 2y = 1}. Is W a subspace of V ?
(b) More generally, suppose that Ax = b is a system of m linear equa-
tions in n variables x1 , . . . , xn . Show that the solution set (containing
those vectors x that are solutions to the system) is a subspace of Rn
if and only if the system is homogeneous (i.e. if b = 0).
(c) V = M22 , the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices with real entries; W is
the subset of symmetric matrices. Is W a subspace of V ?

3
(d) V is the vector space whose elements are infinite sequences of real
numbers (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) (where each xi ∈ R). W is the subset con-
taining all those sequences satisfying the condition lim xn = 0. Is
n→∞
W a subspace of V ?
(e) V = R, is the vector space of real numbers. W = Z is the subset
containing all integers. Is W a subspace of V ?
(f) V = R2 and W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | xy ≥ 0} is the union of the first and
third quadrants (including the axes). Is W a subspace of V ?
(g) V = P3 , the space of polynomials of degree 3 or less, and W =
{p(x) ∈ V | p(−1) = 0} is the subset of those polynomials that have
a root at −1.
(h) V = {f : R → R}, the vector space of all real-valued functions. W is
the subset of those functions that are twice differentiable and satisfy
the differential equation

2f ′′ (x) + (x2 + 1)f ′ (x) − xf (x) = 0.

Is W a subspace of V ?
(i) V = {f : R → R}, the vector space of all real-valued functions. W
is the subspace of functions satisfying f ′ (x) = [f (x)]2 . Solve this
separable differential equation (recall that you set y = f (x), then
dy
f ′ (x) = dx and then transform the given equation to y12 dy = dx,
which can be integrated) and show that W is not a subspace of V .

4
WISK 214 Lineëre Algebra Tutoriaal 2 9–10 Maart 2026
(English on page 1)

Abstrakte vektorruimtes
1. Bepaal of die volgende versameling, met gespesifiseerde optelling en skalaarveelvoud,
’n vektorruimte is. Indien nie, lys al die aksioma wat ontbreuk.
 
x
(a) Die versameling van alle vektore ∈ R2 met x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 (die
y
eerste kwadrant) met die gewone vektoroptelling en skalaarmeervoud.
 
x
(b) Die versameling van alle vektore ∈ R2 met die gewone vek-
x
toroptelling en skalaarmeervoud.
 
x
(c) Die versameling van alle vektore ∈ R2 met xy ≥ 0 (die vereniging
y
van die eerste en derde kwadrante) met die gewone vektoroptelling
en skalaarmeervoud.
(d) R2 , met die gewone skalaarmeervoud maar optelling is gedefinieer
deur      
x1 x2 x1 + x2 + 1
+ = .
y1 y2 y1 + y2 + 1

(e) R2 , met die gewone optelling maar skalaarmeervoud is gedefinieer

deur    
x cx
c = .
y y

2. In die volgende berekening, identifiseer watter reëls van ’n vektorruimte

in elke stap gebruik word.

(−1) · 2 · v + (−1) · w + 2 · v



= (−1) · (2 · v) + (−1) · (−1) · w +2·v


= (−2) · v) + 1 · w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v + w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v + w + 2 · v


= (−2) · v + 2 · v + w


= (−2) · v + 2 · v + w
= (0) · v + w
=0+w
=w

5
3. Bewys die volgende bewerings. Noem duidelik watter reëls van ’n vektor-
ruimte wanneer gebruik word.
(a) Vir enige v ∈ V geld v + v = 2v.
(b) Veronderstel dat v ∈ V die vergelyking 5v = 2v bevredig. Bewys
dat v = v.
(c) Vir enige skalaar c geld c · 0 = 0.
(d) Vir enige nie-nul v ∈ V en enige skalare c, d met c ̸= d geld cv ̸= dv.
Hierdie probleem het ’n interessante gevolg: Enige vektorruimte wat
minstens een nie-nul vektor bevat, moet oneindig baie elemente hê.
Kan jy sien waarom?

4. Veronderstel V is ’n vektorruimte en v1 , v2 , v3 is elemente.

(a) Vereenvoudig die lineêre kombinasie

2(v1 + 2v2 − v3 ) + (−1)(v1 − v2 + v3 ) + (−2)(−v1 + v2 + 2v3 ).

(b) Vergelyk jou antwoord met die berekening van

     
1 1 −1
2  2  + (−1) −1 + (−2)  1  .
−1 1 2

(c) Vergelyk dit dan met

2(1 + 2x − x2 ) + (−1)(1 − x + x2 ) + (−2)(−1 + x + 2x2 ).

   
1 0
Nota: Ons kon (b) uit (a) verkry deur v1 = 0, v2 = 1 en
  0 0
0
v3 = 0 te stel en ons kon (c) uit (a) verkry deur v1 = 1, v2 = x en
1
v3 = x2 te stel. Dus is (a) meer algemeen en bevat beide (b) en (c) as
spesiale gevalle. Dus word daar vir die ekstra kompleksiteit van die
abstraktheid van (a) opgemaak deur die feit dat dit meer algemeen
is en dus in meer situasies toegepas kan word. Later in die kursus
sal ons leer ‘hoe om terug te gaan’ en die algemene resultaat uit ’n
berekening in R3 af te lei.
(d) Kan jy aan nog ’n ander konteks dink waar dieselfde idee toegepas
kan word?
5. (a) Veronderstel dat v1 , v2 , v3 drie elemente in enige vektorruimte is en
dat hulle linêr onafhanklik is. Wys dat die elemente v1 + v2 + v3 ,
v1 + v2 en v2 + v3 ook lineêr onafhanklik is.

6
 (b) Jy kan dit dalk in die volgende situasie toepas: As dit gegee word
dat die matrikse
     
1 0 0 0 0 1
, en
0 0 0 1 1 0

lineêr onafhanklik is in die vektorruimte M2,2 van 2 × 2 matrikse,

gebruik (a) om af te lei dat
     
1 1 1 0 0 1
, en
1 1 0 1 1 1

ook lineêr onafhanklik is.

6. (a) Veronderstel dat v1 , v2 twee elemente van ’n vektorruimte V is wat

vir V [Link] dat die elemente v1 + v2 en v1 + 2v2 ook vir
V onderspan.
(b) Jy kan dit dalkin die
 volgende
  situasie toepas: As dit gegee word
1 0
dat de vektore  0  en 1 die vlak in R2 gedefinieer deur x1 −
−1 2
2x
 2 + x 3 =
 0 onderspan, gebruik dan (a) om af te lei dat die vektore
1 1
1 en 2 ook daardie vlak onderspan.
1 3
Nota: Die laaste twee probleme is baie abstrak en mag dalk baie dinkwerk
verg om aan gewoond te raak, maar hulle gee uitstekende oefening daarin
om die omskakeling te maak tussen ’n abstrakte stelling en ’n konkrete
realisasie daarvan. Jy mag dalk die tyd wil neem om met nog voorbeelde
soos dit op te kom. Die voorbeelde wys ook dat ’n mens enigiets wat jy
in terme van lineêre kombinasies kan doen (bv. onafhanklikheid, span, en
baie ander dinge wat nog later in die module kom), in ’n abstrakte situasie
kan doen en kan “vertaal” na ’n ander konteks waar lineêre kombinasies
ook sin maak.

Deelruimtes
7. Vir elk van die volgende vektorruimtes V en deelversamelings W , bepaal
of W ’n deelruimte van V is.

(a) V = R2 , W = {(x, y) ∈ V | x + 2y = 1}. Is W ’n deelruimte van V ?

(b) Meer algemeen, veronderstel dat Ax = b ’n stelsel van m lineêre
vergelykings in v veranderlikes x1 , . . . , xn is. Wys dat die oploss-
ingsversameling (daardie x wat ’n oplossing vir die stelsel is) ’n deel-
ruimte van Rn is as en slegs as die stelsel homogeen is. (i.e. as
b = 0).

7
(c) V = M22 , die vektorruimte van 2 × 2 matrikse met reële inskrywings;
W is die deelversameling wat die simmetriese matrikse bevat. Is W
’n deelruimte van V ?
(d) V is die vektorruimte wie se elemente oneindige rye reële getalle is:
(x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) (waar elke xi ∈ R). W is die deelversameling wat al
sulke rye bevat wat lim xn = 0 bevredig. Is W ’n deelruimte van
n→∞
V?
(e) V = R, die vektorruimte van reële getalle. W = Z is die deelver-
sameling van heelgetalle. Is W ’n deelruimte van V ?
(f) V = R2 en W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | xy ≥ 0} is die vereniging van die
eerste en derde kwadrante (insluitend die asse). Is W ’n deelruimte
van V ?
(g) V = P3 is die versameling polinome van graad 3 of minder, en W =
{p(x) ∈ V | p(−1) = 0} is die deelversameling van sulke polinome
wat −1 as ’n wortel het.
(h) V = {f : R → R}, die vektorruimte van alle funksies van R na R. W
is die deelversameling van sulke funksies wat twee maal differensieer-
baar is en die volgende vergelyking bevredig:

2f ′′ (x) + (x2 + 1)f ′ (x) − xf (x) = 0.

Is W ’n deelruimte van V ?
(i) V = {f : R → R}, die vektorruimte van alle funksies van R na
R. W is die deelversameling van sulke funksies wat die vergelyking
f ′ (x) = [f (x)]2 bevredig. Lop hierdie skeibare differensiaalvergelyk-
dy
ing op (onthou: stel y = f (x), dan is f ′ (x) = dx en die vergelyking
1
word y2 dy = dx, wat aan beide kante geı̈ntegreer kan word) en wys
dat W nie ’n deelruimte van V is nie.