Power Systems — Quick Revision

Unit III: Supervisory Power Management | Unit IV: SCADA Systems

UNIT III — Supervisory Power Management (9 Marks)

1. Energy Management System (EMS)

A centralised computer-based platform that monitors, controls and optimises a power system in real time at transmission level (Load Despatch
Centres).
EMS = SCADA (data collection) + Advanced Applications (analysis & control)
EMS Function Description
Data Acquisition Collects V, I, MW, MVAr from RTUs/IEDs via SCADA
State Estimation WLS method — best-estimate of voltages/angles from noisy meters
Security Analysis N-1 contingency simulation — static (thermal/voltage) + dynamic (stability)
AGC Balances generation & load every 4 s to maintain 50 Hz frequency
Economic Dispatch Allocates generation among units to minimise fuel cost
Optimal Power Flow Minimises cost while respecting all V, I, angle constraints
Load Forecasting Predicts future demand for unit commitment & planning

2. Power System Operational States (Dy Liacco, 1968)

State Condition & Action
Normal All limits OK + N-1 secure. No action needed.
Alert Limits OK now, but contingency may cause violation. Preventive action.
Emergency Constraint violated (overload/low V). Corrective action — load shedding.
In Extremis Cascading failures. Islanding/blackout risk. Stop cascade immediately.
Restorative Post-fault recovery. Reconnect islands, restore frequency → Normal.

Transitions: Normal ↔ Alert ↔ Emergency ↔ In Extremis | Restorative → Normal

3. Security Analysis
N-1 Criterion: System must remain secure even after loss of any single element (line/generator/transformer).
Type Description
Static Security Checks thermal & voltage limits after contingency. Uses Newton-Raphson power flow. Fast (seconds).
Dynamic Security Checks transient stability, voltage stability via time-domain simulation. Slower, more accurate.
Voltage Security Uses PV and QV curves to check voltage stability under stressed conditions.
Process: Contingency Selection → Contingency Analysis → Ranking by severity → Corrective Action

4. State Estimation
Purpose: Computes best estimate of system state (bus |V| and angles δ) from raw, noisy, possibly missing meter data.
• Method: Weighted Least Squares (WLS) — minimises weighted sum of squared measurement errors
• Inputs: Active/reactive power flows, bus voltages, currents from RTUs/IEDs
• Output: State vector — |V| and δ at every bus (runs every 2–5 min)
• Bad Data Detection: Chi-squared test or Largest Normalised Residual method
• Security analysis & OPF depend on SE output — errors in SE → wrong control decisions

5. Load Forecasting ■
Type Horizon Application
Very Short Term (VSTF) Seconds–minutes AGC, real-time balancing
Short Term (STLF) 1 hr – 7 days Unit commitment, economic dispatch, trading
Medium Term (MTLF) 1 week – 1 year Maintenance scheduling, fuel/hydro planning
Long Term (LTLF) 1 – 20+ years Capacity planning, transmission expansion

Affecting Factors (W-T-E-D-S-R): Weather (temp strongest) · Time (hour/day/season) · Economy (GDP, tariff) · Demographics (population,
urbanisation) · Special events (festivals) · Random (stochastic)
Methods: Regression | ARIMA (time series) | Exponential Smoothing | ANN (most accurate STLF) | SVM | Fuzzy Logic | Hybrid
Quality metric: MAPE < 2% for good short-term forecast

6. Energy Audit
Systematic inspection of energy flows to identify efficiency improvements. Mandated under Energy Conservation Act 2001 (Bureau of Energy
Efficiency — BEE).
Type Description
Preliminary (Walk-Through) Quick visual inspection. Low cost, low accuracy. Initial screening.
Detailed (General) Instruments measure energy flows. Quantifies savings potential.
Investment-Grade Full engineering + financial analysis for major capital decisions.
Steps: Data collection → Walk-through → Measurement → Analysis → ECO identification → Cost-benefit → Report
Key output: EnPI = Energy consumed per unit output (kWh/tonne)

7. Utility Distributed System Design ■

Topology Description
Radial Single path source→load. Cheap, low reliability. Rural areas.
Ring Main (Loop) Two supply paths, normally-open tie switch. Better reliability. Urban.
Interconnected Multiple paths. Highest reliability. Critical loads, large cities.

Design Considerations: Voltage regulation ±6% | Short-circuit ratings | Substation near load centres | DG integration (rooftop solar) | Loss
minimisation (capacitor placement) | 20–25 yr load growth headroom
Indian Standard: Voltage regulation ±6%, Power Factor > 0.85 at substation

8. Voltage Regulation & Distribution Automation (DA)

Equipment Function
OLTC (On-Load Tap Changer) Auto-adjusts transformer turns ratio. Responds in seconds.
Capacitor Banks Local reactive power — raises voltage, improves pf. Auto-switched.
Step Voltage Regulators Series transformer boosts/bucks voltage. Long rural feeders.
SVC / STATCOM Fast continuous reactive compensation at HV/EHV level.

DA Components: RTU · IED · Automated switches/reclosers · DMS · AMI (smart meters)

FLISR: Fault Location, Isolation & Service Restoration — detects fault, isolates faulted section, restores healthy sections automatically in seconds.
Key metric: SAIDI improves dramatically.

9. Fault Control Management ■ — Sequence: DLIR

Detect → Locate → Isolate → Restore
Step Methods
1. Detect OCR (IDMT/Instantaneous) · Differential relay (transformers/generators) · Distance relay (zones 1/2/3 for transmission) · Earth Fault relay
(zero-sequence current)
2. Locate Impedance method (Z=V/I, simple) · Travelling wave (very accurate) · SCADA alarm pattern analysis
3. Isolate Circuit Breakers (interrupt fault current, kA rating) · Sectionalizers (open when de-energised) · Fuses (LT network)
4. Restore Auto-reclosers (3 attempts — 80% overhead faults are transient) · Tie-switch operation (alternate feeder) · Load shedding (frequency protection)
~80% of overhead line faults are transient — auto-reclosure restores without crew dispatch
UNIT IV — SCADA System Components & Applications (9 Marks)

1. What is SCADA?
SCADA = Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. Collects real-time data from geographically dispersed field devices, displays to operators,
and allows remote supervisory control. Backbone of power, water, oil & gas, manufacturing automation.
System Focus & Scope
SCADA Real-time data collection & remote control — the "nervous system"
EMS Uses SCADA data for transmission-level optimisation (AGC, OPF, security)
DMS Uses SCADA data for distribution automation (FLISR, VVO, outage management)

2. Intelligent Electronic Device (IED)

IED = Protection relay + Measuring instrument + Remote terminal + Data logger — all in one microprocessor-based device. Replaced
traditional electromechanical relays.
Functions Communication Protocols
• Protection: trips CB in milliseconds on fault • Measurement: V, I, MW, • IEC 61850: modern standard, interoperability; GOOSE (<4ms protection), MMS
MVAr, harmonics • Control: open/close breakers on SCADA command • (monitoring) • DNP3: North America SCADA • Modbus RTU/TCP: common
Monitoring: waveforms, event logs • Self-diagnosis: reports own health industrial • IEC 60870-5-101/104: Europe & India telecontrol

3. SCADA Server (Master Station)

Component Function
Front-End Processor (FEP) Polls all RTUs/IEDs, collects data, provides comms redundancy
Real-Time Database (RTDB) Stores current values of all tags — updated every few seconds
Historical Data Server Time-stamped storage for years — trend analysis, reports (OSIsoft PI)
Alarm Server Manages alarms — priority, acknowledgement, escalation, logging
Application Server Runs load flow, state estimation, outage management, OPF
Redundancy: Primary + Hot Standby (<1 s failover) · Dual FEPs · RAID storage

4. Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

Operator's window — translates SCADA data into graphical displays and accepts control commands.
Display Type Description
SLD/Mimic Diagram Real-time single-line diagram — breaker status (open=red/closed=green), V, I, MW/MVAr
Geographic Display Network on map — substations, lines, generation for situational awareness
Trend/Historical Graph Any data point plotted over time — frequency, load analysis
Alarm List Active alarms sorted by priority, time, acknowledgement status

Control safety: Select-Before-Operate (SBO) · Role-based access · Command confirmation

Poor HMI design contributed to 2003 North America blackout (operators missed alarms)

5. Control System Components ■

Layer Components Function
Field Layer Sensors, CTs, VTs, breakers, actuators Measure quantities; execute commands
Device Layer RTUs, IEDs, PLCs Local acquisition, protection, control
Communication Layer Fibre optic, PLCC, radio, 4G/5G, Ethernet Data highway — field to control centre
Control Centre SCADA server, EMS/DMS, Historian, FEP Process, store, analyse; advanced apps
Presentation Layer HMI workstations, video wall Display to operators; accept commands
Enterprise Layer Business systems, billing, market Management reporting

CT: Steps down high current (e.g. 1000A→5A) for IED input. Never open-circuit under load. | VT: Steps down high voltage (e.g. 11kV→110V). | RTU:
Collects analog/digital inputs, transmits to SCADA, executes control outputs.
India: NLDC + 5 RLDCs (PGCIL) operate EMS/SCADA for the national grid

6. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Ruggedised industrial computer for real-time sequential control. Continuously scans inputs → executes logic → updates outputs (scan cycle:
1–100 ms).
Module Function
CPU Executes control program (scan cycle), stores in flash memory
Input Module Reads digital (ON/OFF) and analog (4-20mA, 0-10V) inputs
Output Module Sends digital (relays, solenoids) and analog (motor drives) outputs
Communication Module Connects to SCADA/HMI via Modbus, Profibus, Ethernet/IP

Programming Languages (IEC 61131-3): Ladder Diagram (LD) — most common | Function Block (FBD) | Structured Text (ST) | Instruction List (IL) |
Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
Aspect PLC RTU
Primary purpose PLC: Control logic execution RTU: Telemetry (data to control centre)
Scan time PLC: 1–100 ms (fast) RTU: 1–5 seconds (slower)
Application PLC: Motor control, pump sequencing RTU: Substation data acquisition

7. SCADA Applications in Various Utilities

Sector SCADA Application
Power — Generation Turbine output, boiler params, plant auxiliaries; AGC adjusts output in real time
Power — Transmission Substation automation — breaker status, line loading, fault detection
Power — Distribution Feeder automation, FLISR, Volt-VAR optimisation, outage management
Power — Renewable Wind (turbine pitch, output), solar (irradiance, inverter status)
Water & Wastewater Tank levels, pump status, flow, chlorine; remote pump/valve control; leak detection
Oil & Gas Pipeline pressure/flow/temp; leak detection → auto valve isolation; compressor control
Manufacturing Temperature, pressure, flow; batch control, quality monitoring, production KPIs
Transport Railway traction power, signalling; traffic adaptive signal control

8. SCADA Applications — Transmission (EMS) & Distribution (DMS) ■

Application Description
TRANSMISSION (EMS)
Real-Time Monitoring All line flows, bus voltages, gen output on SLD — updated every 2–4 s
AGC Maintains 50 Hz — raise/lower signals to generators every 4 s. ACE = freq deviation × 10B + net interchange error
Load Flow Newton-Raphson power flow — shows MW/MVAr on all lines, identifies overloads
Contingency Analysis N-1 simulation — ranks worst contingencies, alerts operator if in Alert state
Voltage/Q Control Adjusts AVRs, switched capacitors, SVC setpoints to maintain voltage profile
DISTRIBUTION (DMS)
Outage Management (OMS) Identifies outage from customer calls & alarms, dispatches crew, tracks restoration
FLISR Auto-isolates faulted section, restores healthy sections — reduces SAIDI/SAIFI
Volt-VAR Optimisation Coordinates capacitors, OLTC, regulators — saves 2–5% energy
Load Balancing Transfers load between feeders via tie switches to avoid overloads
Demand Response SCADA triggers load reduction at large consumers during peak periods

KPIs: SAIDI = avg outage duration per customer/year | SAIFI = avg number of outages per customer/year. DA reduces both significantly.

9. SCADA-Based Instrumentation ■
Instrument Description
CT (Current Transformer) Steps down line current (e.g.1000A→5A/1A). Class 0.2S (metering), 5P20 (protection). NEVER open-circuit.
VT/PT (Voltage Transformer) Steps down voltage (e.g.11kV→110V). Class 0.2 (metering), 3P (protection).
Power Transducer Converts CT+VT signals → 4–20mA DC ∝ MW/MVAr. Read by RTU analog input.
Energy Meter (Trivector) Measures kWh, kVAh, kVARh. Pulse output (1 pulse/kWh) to RTU pulse input.
Frequency Transducer Converts 49–51 Hz → 4–20mA for SCADA monitoring.
Breaker Aux. Contacts 52a (closed=breaker closed), 52b (closed=breaker open) → RTU digital input.
RTU Digital Output Energises trip coil (open CB) or close coil (close CB). Also tap changer Raise/Lower pulses.

Signal Chain: Physical quantity (11kV, 200A) → CT/VT → Transducer → 4–20mA → RTU analog input → FEP → SCADA RTDB → HMI display
4mA = 0% of range (0 MW) | 20mA = 100% of range | <4mA (0mA) = wire break fault — distinguishable from zero!

LAST-MINUTE CHEAT SHEET

Topic Key Point
EMS Monitor + Control + Optimise grid in real time (transmission level)
Op. States Normal → Alert → Emergency → In Extremis → Restorative
Security Analysis N-1 simulation: Static (thermal/V) + Dynamic (stability)
State Estimation WLS method — best-estimate |V|, δ from noisy measurements. Runs 2–5 min.
Load Forecast VSTF/STLF/MTLF/LTLF | W-T-E-D-S-R factors | MAPE <2% = good STLF
Energy Audit Prelim → Detailed → Investment-grade | Output: EnPI
Distribution Radial/Ring/Mesh | ±6% voltage | pf >0.85
DA FLISR + OLTC + Capacitors + Switches → reduces SAIDI/SAIFI
Fault Control DLIR: Detect (relays) → Locate (Z/wave) → Isolate (CB) → Restore (recloser/tie)
SCADA Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition — data + remote control backbone
IED Protection + Measurement + Control + Comms in one device. IEC 61850 GOOSE <4ms
SCADA Server FEP + RTDB + Historian + Alarm server + App server
HMI SLD, alarms, trends, control via SBO (Select-Before-Operate)
Control Layers Field→RTU/IED→Comms→Server→HMI (bottom to top)
PLC Scan cycle 1–100ms. Ladder Diagram (most common). Faster than RTU.
SCADA T&D; EMS: AGC, security, OPF | DMS: FLISR, VVO, OMS, demand response
Instrumentation CT/VT → Transducer → 4–20mA → RTU → Server → HMI
Key stat 80% overhead faults transient (auto-recloser restores) | BESCOM: 3hr→5min by FLISR

Good luck on your exam! Always write full forms first: SCADA · EMS · IED · FLISR · VVO · OMS · AGC · OLTC · WLS · DLIR