MTPC2006

DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

Complete Study Notes | University Exam Preparation

Metallurgical & Materials Engineering

Based on: Mechanical Metallurgy — G.E. Dieter | Phase Transformations — Porter, Easterling &
Sherif

Covers: All 5 Modules | 16-Mark Exam Answers | Viva Questions | Industrial Examples
 MODULE I — CONTINUUM MECHANICS & DEFORMATION TYPES (6
Hours)

1. INTRODUCTION TO DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR

When a material is subjected to external forces or loads, it undergoes a change in shape or size — this
is called deformation. Understanding deformation is fundamental to the design of safe and efficient
engineering structures. The subject covers how materials respond to stress, the mechanisms by which
they deform, and the conditions under which they fail.

1.1 Types of Deformation

Materials exhibit three fundamental types of deformation depending on the magnitude of applied stress,
temperature, and time:

1.1.1 Elastic Deformation

DEFINITION: Elastic deformation is a reversible change in shape or size of a body under stress.
When the load is removed, the material returns to its original dimensions. The relationship between
stress and strain is linear (Hooke's Law).
Characteristics of Elastic Deformation:
• Fully reversible — no permanent change in dimensions
• Obeys Hooke's Law: σ = Eε (for normal stress) and τ = Gγ (for shear stress)
• Governed by interatomic bond stretching — no permanent bond breakage
• Occurs below the elastic limit (proportional limit)
• Very small strains involved (typically < 0.1%)
• Instantaneous response — time-independent

Equations:

σ = E·ε (Normal stress-strain)

τ = G·γ (Shear stress-strain)
Lateral strain / Axial strain = -ν (Poisson's ratio)
E = 2G(1 + ν) = 3K(1 - 2ν)
Where: E = Young's modulus, G = Shear modulus, K = Bulk modulus, ν = Poisson's ratio

Physical Basis (Dieter, Ch.2): At the atomic scale, elastic deformation occurs due to stretching of
interatomic bonds. The Young's modulus is a measure of the stiffness of interatomic bonds. Materials
with strong bonds (e.g., ceramics, refractory metals) have high E values.
KEY POINT: Young's modulus of steel ≈ 200 GPa; Aluminium ≈ 70 GPa; Rubber ≈ 0.01 GPa. These
differences arise from bond strength and atomic structure.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Suspension bridges use the elastic properties of steel cables. Aircraft
wings are designed so that they flex elastically in turbulence without permanent deformation.

1.1.2 Plastic Deformation

DEFINITION: Plastic deformation is a permanent, irreversible change in shape that occurs when
stress exceeds the yield strength of a material. It involves permanent displacement of atoms beyond
their equilibrium positions.
Characteristics of Plastic Deformation:
• Permanent and irreversible
• Occurs by slip (dislocation movement), twinning, or diffusion mechanisms
• Begins at the yield point (yield strength, σ_y)
• Accompanied by strain hardening (work hardening) — material becomes stronger as it
deforms
• Time-independent (unlike creep)
• Governed by shear stress on slip systems

Yield Criteria (Dieter, Ch.2):

• Tresca (Maximum Shear Stress) Criterion: Yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress
reaches a critical value: τ_max = σ_y / 2
• Von Mises (Distortion Energy) Criterion: Yielding occurs when the distortion energy equals
that in uniaxial tension: (σ₁ -σ₂ )² + (σ₂ -σ₃ )² + (σ₃ -σ₁ )² = 2σ_y²
Tresca: τ_max = (σ₁ - σ₃ )/2 = k = σ_y/2
Von Mises: (σ₁ -σ₂ )² + (σ₂ -σ₃ )² + (σ₃ -σ₁ )² = 2σ_y²
IMPORTANT: Von Mises criterion is more accurate for ductile metals and is widely used in FEM
simulations. Tresca is more conservative and simpler.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Metal forming operations like rolling, forging, and extrusion deliberately
exploit plastic deformation to shape metals. Automotive body panels are formed by plastic
deformation of steel or aluminium sheets.

1.1.3 Visco-elastic Deformation

DEFINITION: Visco-elastic deformation combines the characteristics of both viscous flow and elastic
deformation. The response depends on both the magnitude of stress and the rate of loading (time-
dependent).
Characteristics:
• Time-dependent — strain increases with time under constant stress
• Partial recovery on unloading (unlike pure viscous flow)
• Common in polymers, bitumen, biological tissues
 • Exhibits creep (increasing strain under constant stress) and stress relaxation (decreasing
stress under constant strain)
• Modelled using combinations of springs (elastic) and dashpots (viscous)

Models:
• Maxwell Model: Spring and dashpot in series — describes stress relaxation well
• Kelvin-Voigt Model: Spring and dashpot in parallel — describes creep well
• Standard Linear Solid (SLS): Three-element model — more realistic
Maxwell: dε/dt = (1/E)(dσ/dt) + σ/η
Kelvin-Voigt: σ = Eε + η(dε/dt)
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Polymeric seals in pipelines exhibit visco-elastic behaviour. Asphalt roads
creep under traffic loads in summer. Cartilage in human joints is visco-elastic.

Property Elastic Plastic Visco-elastic

Reversibility Fully reversible Irreversible Partially reversible
Time- Time-independent Time-independent Time-dependent
dependence
Mechanism Bond stretching Dislocation motion Bond stretch +
viscous flow
Examples Steel springs, Cold-worked Polymers, rubber,
beams metals asphalt
Hooke's Law Obeyed Not obeyed Modified form

1.2 Continuum Mechanics — Stress and Strain

Continuum mechanics treats materials as continuous media (ignoring atomic structure) and provides
the mathematical framework to analyse stress and strain states in structures.

1.2.1 Concept of Stress

DEFINITION: Stress is defined as the internal force per unit area that develops within a material
when subjected to external loads. It represents the intensity of internal forces.
σ = F/A₀ (Engineering/Normal Stress)
τ = F_shear / A (Shear Stress)
The Stress Tensor (3D State):
In 3D, the complete stress state at a point is described by the stress tensor — a second-order tensor
with 9 components (6 independent due to symmetry):

σᵢⱼ = [σxx τxy τxz]

[τyx σyy τyz]
 [τzx τzy σzz]
Key terms:
• Normal stress (σ): Acts perpendicular to the surface (tensile = positive, compressive =
negative)
• Shear stress (τ): Acts parallel to the surface
• Mean (Hydrostatic) stress: σ_m = (σ₁ + σ₂ + σ₃ )/3 — causes volume change
• Stress deviator: σ'ᵢⱼ = σᵢⱼ - σ_m·δᵢⱼ — causes shape change (responsible for yielding)
σ_mean = (σxx + σyy + σzz)/3 = I₁ /3
KEY POINT: Hydrostatic stress does NOT cause yielding in ductile metals — only the deviatoric
component (distortion energy) causes yielding. This is the basis of Von Mises criterion.

1.2.2 Concept of Strain

DEFINITION: Strain is the measure of deformation representing the relative displacement between
particles in a material body. It is dimensionless.
Engineering strain: ε = ΔL/L₀ = (L - L₀ )/L₀
True strain: εt = ln(L/L₀ ) = ln(1 + ε)
Shear strain: γ = tan(θ) ≈ θ (for small angles)
The Strain Tensor (3D):

εᵢⱼ = (1/2)(∂uᵢ/∂xⱼ + ∂uⱼ/∂xᵢ)

Where uᵢ are displacement components.

1.2.3 Principal Stresses and Principal Axes

DEFINITION: Principal stresses are the normal stresses acting on planes where shear stresses are
zero. These planes are called principal planes and their normals are principal axes.
For 3D stress state:
• There are 3 principal stresses: σ₁ ≥ σ₂ ≥ σ₃ (major, intermediate, minor)
• Found by solving the characteristic equation: det(σᵢⱼ - σδᵢⱼ) = 0
• Maximum shear stress: τ_max = (σ₁ - σ₃ )/2
• For 2D (plane stress): σ₁ ,₂ = (σx+σy)/2 ± √[(σx-σy)²/4 + τxy²]
Characteristic equation: σ³ - I₁ σ² + I₂ σ - I₃ = 0
I₁ = σxx+σyy+σzz (1st invariant = trace)
I₂ = σxxσyy+σyyσzz+σzzσxx - τxy²-τyz²-τzx²
I₃ = det(σᵢⱼ) (3rd invariant)
KEY POINT: Stress invariants (I₁ , I₂ , I₃ ) do not change with rotation of coordinate axes — they
represent physical reality independent of reference frame.
1.2.4 Mohr's Circle
Mohr's Circle is a graphical representation of the state of stress at a point. It is used to find principal
stresses, maximum shear stress, and stress on any inclined plane.
• Centre of circle: C = (σx + σy)/2
• Radius: R = √[(σx-σy)²/4 + τxy²]
• Principal stresses: σ₁ = C + R, σ₂ = C - R
• Max shear stress: τ_max = R
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Mohr's circle is used in designing pressure vessels, determining safe
cutting angles in machining, and analysing stress in welded joints.

1.2.5 Equilibrium of Stresses

For a body in static equilibrium, the stress components must satisfy the equilibrium equations (from
Newton's second law):

∂σxx/∂x + ∂τyx/∂y + ∂τzx/∂z + Fx = 0

∂τxy/∂x + ∂σyy/∂y + ∂τzy/∂z + Fy = 0
∂τxz/∂x + ∂τyz/∂y + ∂σzz/∂z + Fz = 0
Where Fx, Fy, Fz are body force components per unit volume.

1.2.6 Yield Criteria (Detailed)

Yield criteria predict when a material transitions from elastic to plastic behaviour under multi-axial stress
states.

Tresca (Maximum Shear Stress) Criterion:

• Proposed by Henri Tresca (1864)
• Yielding occurs when maximum shear stress = shear yield strength (k)
τ_max = (σ₁ - σ₃ )/2 = k = σ_y/2
• In 2D: √[(σ₁ -σ₂ )² + 4τ²] = 2k
• Conservative (predicts lower load capacity)
• Represented as a hexagon in principal stress space

Von Mises (Distortion Energy / J₂ ) Criterion:

• Proposed by R. Von Mises (1913)
• Yielding when distortion (shear strain) energy reaches critical value
(σ₁ -σ₂ )² + (σ₂ -σ₃ )² + (σ₃ -σ₁ )² = 2σ_y²
Or: J₂ = k² where k = σ_y/√3
• More accurate for ductile metals (fcc, bcc)
 • Represented as an ellipse (2D) or cylinder (3D) in stress space
• Von Mises gives ≈ 15.5% higher load capacity than Tresca

Feature Tresca Criterion Von Mises Criterion

Basis Max shear stress Distortion energy
Accuracy Conservative (lower bound) More accurate
Shape (stress space) Hexagon Ellipse/Cylinder
k (shear yield) σ_y / 2 σ_y / √3
Applications Simple hand calculations FEM, complex analysis

1.3 Revision Points — Module I

• Elastic deformation → reversible, Hooke's law, bond stretching
• Plastic deformation → irreversible, dislocation motion, beyond yield point
• Visco-elastic → time-dependent, polymers, Maxwell & Kelvin-Voigt models
• Stress tensor → 3×3 matrix, 6 independent components (symmetry)
• Principal stresses → planes with zero shear stress
• Invariants → I₁ , I₂ , I₃ — independent of coordinate rotation
• Tresca → hexagon, τ_max = σ_y/2 (conservative)
• Von Mises → ellipse, k = σ_y/√3 (more accurate for metals)
• Mean stress → does NOT cause yielding in ductile metals

1.4 Viva / Important Questions — Module I

[Link] elastic, plastic, and visco-elastic deformation with examples.
[Link] and explain Hooke's Law. What is its limitation?
[Link] is a stress tensor? Write the 3D stress tensor and identify its components.
[Link] between engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain.
[Link] are principal stresses? How are they determined?
[Link] and compare Tresca and Von Mises yield criteria.
[Link] does hydrostatic stress not cause yielding in metals?
[Link] are stress invariants? Why are they important?
[Link] and explain Mohr's circle for a 2D stress state.
Q10. A steel rod (σ_y = 250 MPa) is subjected to biaxial stress σ₁ = 200 MPa, σ₂ =
100 MPa. Check yielding by Von Mises criterion.
 MODULE II — PLASTIC DEFORMATION & SINGLE CRYSTALS (6 Hours)

2. PLASTIC RESPONSE OF MATERIALS

2.1 Stress-Strain Curves of Engineering Materials

The stress-strain curve is the most fundamental representation of a material's mechanical behaviour.
It is obtained from a tensile test and shows how stress varies with strain from elastic region to fracture.

2.1.1 Classification of Stress-Strain Curves

Stress-strain curves vary significantly based on crystal structure, purity, grain size, and temperature.
Dieter classifies them based on crystal structure:

FCC Metals (Face-Centred Cubic):

• Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Nickel, Gold, Silver, Austenitic stainless steel
• Gradual yielding — no sharp yield point
• High ductility and good formability
• Continuous work hardening (parabolic curve)
• Multiple slip systems (12 {111}<110>) → homogeneous deformation
• Low to moderate yield strength, high UTS/yield ratio
• Strain hardening exponent n ≈ 0.2–0.5

BCC Metals (Body-Centred Cubic):

• Examples: Iron (α), Steel (low carbon), Tungsten, Chromium, Molybdenum
• Sharp upper and lower yield point (especially in mild steel) — due to interstitial atoms (C,
N) locking dislocations (Cottrell atmosphere)
• Lüders band (stretcher strain) formation after yielding
• Higher yield strength than FCC, moderate ductility
• Strain hardening less pronounced than FCC
• Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) observed
• 48 slip systems {110}, {112}, {123}<111>
IMPORTANT: The upper yield point in mild steel is due to Cottrell atmospheres — clouds of
interstitial carbon atoms that pin dislocations. When stress is sufficient to unpin dislocations, sudden
yielding occurs and stress drops to the lower yield point.

HCP Metals (Hexagonal Close-Packed):

 • Examples: Titanium, Zinc, Magnesium, Cobalt, Cadmium
• Limited slip systems (3 basal {0001}<1120>) → lower ductility
• Twinning is important secondary deformation mechanism (especially at low temperatures)
• Strong anisotropy — properties differ with direction
• Brittle compared to FCC and BCC
• Asymmetry between tensile and compressive yield strength

Property FCC BCC HCP

Examples Cu, Al, Ni, Au Fe, W, Cr, Mo Ti, Zn, Mg
Yield point Gradual Sharp Gradual to sharp
(upper+lower)
Ductility High Moderate Low
Slip systems 12 ({111}<110>) 48 (multiple 3 (basal)
families)
Strain hardening High (parabolic) Moderate Low
Key feature Work hardening Lüders bands Twinning important

2.2 Plastic Deformation of Single Crystals

Understanding plastic deformation of single crystals (Dieter, Ch.4) provides the microscopic foundation
for understanding polycrystalline behaviour.

2.2.1 Deformation by Slip

DEFINITION: Slip is the primary mechanism of plastic deformation in crystalline metals. It involves
the translation of one part of a crystal relative to another along specific crystallographic planes (slip
planes) and directions (slip directions).
Characteristics of Slip:
• Occurs on close-packed planes (highest atomic density) — least resistance to shear
• Occurs along close-packed directions — shortest Burgers vector → minimum energy
• Slip system = slip plane + slip direction
• Slip produces steps on the crystal surface visible as slip lines/slip bands
• Crystallographic nature: slip maintains lattice structure (translation by Burgers vector)

Crystal Structure Slip Plane(s) Slip Direction(s) No. of Slip Systems

FCC {111} (4 planes) <110> (3 directions 12
each)
BCC {110},{112},{123} <111> 48 (12+12+24)
HCP {0001} (basal) <1120> 3 (primary)
 Crystal Structure Slip Plane(s) Slip Direction(s) No. of Slip Systems
HCP {1010} (prism) <1120> 3 (secondary)

2.2.2 Slip in a Perfect Lattice — Theoretical Shear Strength

The theoretical (ideal) shear strength of a perfect crystal can be estimated by considering sinusoidal
force variation as one plane of atoms slides over another:

τ_theoretical = G/(2π) ≈ G/30 to G/10

For iron: τ_theoretical ≈ 4 GPa, but experimental values are 1000× lower (~4 MPa)!

IMPORTANT: This enormous discrepancy between theoretical and actual shear strength was
resolved by the concept of DISLOCATIONS (independently proposed by Taylor, Orowan, and Polanyi
in 1934). Dislocations allow slip to occur at much lower stresses by propagating incrementally rather
than requiring simultaneous movement of all atoms.

2.2.3 Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS) — Schmid's Law

DEFINITION: The Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS) is the minimum shear stress required on a
slip system to initiate slip. It is the resolved component of the applied stress on the slip system.
Schmid's Law (1924):

τ_RSS = σ · cos(φ) · cos(λ)

τ_RSS = σ · m where m = cos(φ)·cos(λ) = Schmid Factor
Where:
• σ = applied tensile stress
• φ = angle between tensile axis and slip plane normal
• λ = angle between tensile axis and slip direction
• m = Schmid factor (maximum = 0.5 when φ = λ = 45°)
Yield condition: Slip begins when τ_RSS = τ_CRSS

σ_yield = τ_CRSS / (cos φ · cos λ) = τ_CRSS / m

KEY POINT: Maximum Schmid factor = 0.5 (when slip plane normal and slip direction both at 45° to
tensile axis). This orientation gives the lowest yield strength — called the 'soft orientation'. The
orientation factor m is also called the orientation hardening factor.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Zinc single crystals have a very low CRSS (~0.18 MPa for basal slip) and
deform easily. Magnesium, with similar HCP structure but higher c/a ratio, has CRSS ~0.4 MPa for
basal slip. This difference arises from stacking fault energy differences.

2.2.4 Strain Hardening of Single Crystals

Strain hardening (work hardening) is the increase in yield strength with increasing plastic strain. In
single crystals, three stages of hardening are observed (Dieter, Ch.4):

Stage I — Easy Glide:

 • Single slip system operates; other systems not yet activated
• Very low hardening rate (θ_I = dτ/dγ ≈ G/3000)
• Long, uniform slip lines — dislocations travel long distances
• Typical for FCC crystals oriented for single slip

Stage II — Linear Hardening:

• Multiple slip systems activated — forest dislocations form
• High linear hardening rate (θ_II ≈ G/300 ≈ constant)
• Dislocation-dislocation interactions create obstacles
• Short slip lines, heterogeneous deformation
• Lomer-Cottrell locks (sessile dislocations) form

Stage III — Parabolic (Dynamic Recovery):

• Dynamic recovery (cross-slip, thermal activation) allows dislocations to bypass obstacles
• Decreasing hardening rate
• Cross-slip of screw dislocations allows stress relaxation
• Temperature-dependent — higher T lowers stress for Stage III onset
τ_III onset ∝ G·b / (obstacle spacing)

Stage Active Slip Hardening Rate Mechanism Typical

Strain
I (Easy Single system Very low (~G/3000) Long free path 0–0.05
Glide)
II (Linear) Multiple systems High, constant Dislocation forests 0.05–0.5
(~G/300)
III Multiple + cross- Decreasing Dynamic recovery > 0.5
(Parabolic) slip

KEY POINT: Taylor Factor M relates single crystal CRSS to polycrystalline yield strength: σ_poly =
M·τ_CRSS. For FCC metals M ≈ 3.06, reflecting the constraint imposed by grain boundaries requiring
multiple slip systems.

2.3 Revision Points — Module II

• FCC → gradual yielding, high ductility, 12 slip systems, high work hardening
• BCC → sharp yield point, Lüders bands, Cottrell locking
• HCP → limited slip, twinning important, brittle
• Slip → close-packed planes and directions, lowest energy path
• Theoretical shear strength >> experimental → resolved by dislocation concept
• CRSS and Schmid's Law → τ_RSS = σ·cosφ·cosλ
• Maximum Schmid factor = 0.5 (at 45°)
 • Strain hardening stages: I (easy glide) → II (linear) → III (recovery)

2.4 Viva / Important Questions — Module II

Q11. Describe the three stages of strain hardening in single crystals with diagrams.
Q12. State Schmid's Law and derive the expression for CRSS. What is the maximum
Schmid factor?
Q13. Why does BCC iron show a sharp yield point while FCC copper does not?
Q14. Compare slip systems in FCC, BCC, and HCP crystals. How does this affect
ductility?
Q15. What is theoretical shear strength? Why is it much higher than experimentally
observed values?
Q16. Explain the role of Cottrell atmospheres in the yield point phenomenon.
Q17. Define critical resolved shear stress and show how it depends on crystal
orientation.
Q18. A single crystal of copper (FCC) is oriented with tensile axis [001]. Calculate the
Schmid factor for the (111)[101] slip system.
 MODULE III — LATTICE DEFECTS & DISLOCATION THEORY (6 Hours)

3. LATTICE DEFECTS AND DISLOCATION THEORY

3.1 Lattice Defects — Classification

DEFINITION: Lattice defects (crystal defects) are imperfections in the periodic arrangement of atoms
in a crystalline solid. They profoundly affect mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties.

Dimensionality Type Examples Effect on Properties

0D (Point defects) Vacancies, Schottky defect, Frenkel Diffusion, strengthening
Interstitials, defect
Substitutionals
1D (Line defects) Dislocations Edge, Screw, Mixed Plasticity, work hardening
2D (Planar defects) Grain boundaries, HAGB, LAGB, twin Hall-Petch strengthening
Stacking faults boundary
3D (Volume Precipitates, voids, Second phase particles, Precipitation hardening
defects) inclusions pores

3.2 Dislocation Theory (Dieter, Ch.3 & Ch.4)

3.2.1 Elements of Dislocation Theory

DEFINITION: A dislocation is a one-dimensional line defect in a crystal representing a boundary
between slipped and unslipped regions of a crystal plane.
Historical Background: The concept of dislocations was simultaneously and independently proposed
by G.I. Taylor, E. Orowan, and M. Polanyi in 1934 to explain the discrepancy between theoretical and
observed shear strength.

Burgers Vector (b):

• The Burgers vector b characterises the magnitude and direction of the distortion caused by a
dislocation
• Determined by making a Burgers circuit around the dislocation and measuring the closure
failure
• Burgers circuit: A closed loop of atom-to-atom steps in a perfect crystal; the same circuit
around a dislocation fails to close — the closure vector is b
• For FCC: b = (a/2)<110> (a = lattice parameter)
• For BCC: b = (a/2)<111>
 • Dislocation energy ∝ b² → dislocations with shortest b are energetically favoured
|b|_FCC = a/√2 ; |b|_BCC = a√3/2

3.2.2 Types of Dislocations

Edge Dislocation:
• Extra half-plane of atoms inserted into the crystal lattice
• Burgers vector b is perpendicular to the dislocation line
• Positive edge (⊥): extra half-plane above slip plane
• Negative edge (T): extra half-plane below slip plane
• Moves by glide (conservative) along slip plane in direction of b
• Can also climb (non-conservative) perpendicular to slip plane — requires diffusion

Screw Dislocation:
• Burgers vector b is parallel to the dislocation line
• Atoms arranged in a helical (screw-like) pattern around the dislocation
• Can move in any direction perpendicular to itself → cross-slip possible
• Right-handed or left-handed screw dislocations
• Important for Stage III hardening (cross-slip enables dynamic recovery)

Mixed Dislocation:
• Most dislocations in real crystals are mixed — contain both edge and screw components
• Burgers vector at an angle to the dislocation line
• Curved dislocations contain segments of varying character

Feature Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation

b orientation ⊥ to dislocation line ∥ to dislocation line
Slip direction Parallel to b Perpendicular to dislocation line
Cross-slip Cannot cross-slip Can cross-slip to any plane
Climb Yes (requires diffusion) No direct climb
Stress field Strong (edge has extra half-plane) Weaker, purely shear

3.2.3 Movement of Dislocations

Dislocations move under applied shear stress, enabling plastic deformation at stresses far below
theoretical shear strength.
Glide (Conservative Motion):
• Dislocation moves within its slip plane
• No net atomic diffusion required
• Controlled by Peierls-Nabarro stress (lattice friction stress)
τ_PN = (2G/(1-ν)) · exp(-2πw/b)
• Where w = dislocation width; wider dislocations → lower Peierls stress → easier glide
• FCC metals have wide dislocations (low stacking fault energy) → easy glide

Climb (Non-Conservative Motion):

• Edge dislocation moves perpendicular to its slip plane
• Requires diffusion of vacancies or interstitials → thermally activated
• Important at high temperatures (creep)
• Positive climb: vacancy absorption → dislocation moves up
• Negative climb: interstitial absorption → dislocation moves down

Cross-Slip:
• Screw dislocation changes from one slip plane to another containing the same Burgers vector
• Important recovery mechanism at high stresses/temperatures
• Activated when stress builds up on original slip plane

3.2.4 Elastic Properties of Dislocations

Each dislocation produces a stress field in the surrounding lattice, and possesses elastic energy:

Strain energy per unit length: E_dislocation ≈ αGb²

Where α ≈ 0.5–1.0. This energy drives dislocation reactions.

Stress Fields:
• Edge dislocation creates both compressive (above slip plane) and tensile (below) regions
• Screw dislocation creates purely shear stress field
• Dislocations with same sign repel; opposite sign attract and annihilate
Force per unit length on dislocation: F = τ·b
This is the Peach-Koehler force — the driving force for dislocation motion.

3.2.5 Dislocation Intersections

When two dislocations moving on intersecting slip planes cross each other, jogs and kinks form:
• Jog: A step in the dislocation line not lying in the original glide plane — impedes motion of
edge dislocations (drag point)
 • Kink: A step lying in the original glide plane — does not significantly impede motion
• Intersection creates point defects (vacancies/interstitials) requiring extra energy
• This is a major source of work hardening at high dislocation densities
IMPORTANT: At high dislocation densities (~10¹⁵ m⁻ ²), the probability of intersection is very high.
Each intersection increases the drag on dislocations, raising flow stress. This is the microscopic basis
of Stage II work hardening.

3.2.6 Dislocation Reactions

Dislocations can combine (react) to form new dislocations. The driving force is reduction in elastic
energy (∝ b²):

Reaction is energetically favourable if: b₁ ² + b₂ ² > b₃ ² →

UNFAVOURABLE
Reaction is favourable if: b₁ ² + b₂ ² > b_resultant² (Frank's Rule)

Lomer-Cottrell Lock (FCC):

• Formed by reaction of two partial dislocations on intersecting {111} planes
• Resultant dislocation lies on {100} plane (not a slip plane in FCC)
• Cannot glide → acts as sessile barrier blocking further slip
(a/2)[110] + (a/2)[101] → (a/2)[011] → SESSILE
• These locks are responsible for the high Stage II hardening rate

Stair-Rod Dislocations:
• Partial dislocations bounding stacking fault ribbons
• Sessile (immobile) — resist dislocation motion

3.2.7 Dislocation Reactions in Different Crystal Structures

FCC Dislocations — Partial Dislocations:

• Perfect dislocation b = (a/2)<110> can split into two Shockley partial dislocations:
(a/2)[110] → (a/6)[211] + (a/6)[121] + Stacking Fault
• Stacking fault (SF) forms between partials — a region of wrong stacking sequence (ABCABC
→ ABCABABC)
• Stacking fault energy (SFE) determines partial separation: Low SFE → wide partials →
harder to cross-slip → more work hardening
• Low SFE metals: Stainless steel, Brass → wide stacking faults → high work hardening
• High SFE metals: Aluminium → narrow stacking faults → easy cross-slip → less hardening
BCC Dislocations:
• Perfect dislocation b = (a/2)<111> on {110} planes
• Can dissociate but stacking fault energy is high → partials stay close
• Peierls stress higher than FCC → requires higher stress for glide at low T
• Twinning important at low temperatures in BCC

3.2.8 Origin and Multiplication of Dislocations

As-cast metals contain ~10⁶–10⁸ m⁻ ² dislocations. After heavy cold work: ~10¹⁵–10¹⁶ m⁻ ². This 10-
billion-fold increase requires dislocation sources:

Frank-Read Source (Most Important):

• A dislocation segment pinned at both ends (by precipitates, jogs, or intersection points)
• Under applied stress, the segment bows outward
• As stress increases, segment forms expanding loops
• When two ends meet and annihilate, a complete dislocation loop is released
• The original segment regenerates and the process repeats → multiplication
Critical stress to operate Frank-Read source: τ = Gb/L
• Where L = length of pinned segment
• Smaller L → higher stress required → smaller precipitates provide stronger pinning
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: In age-hardened aluminium alloys (e.g., 2024-T3 used in aircraft), fine
precipitates pin dislocations and suppress Frank-Read sources, greatly increasing yield strength from
~100 MPa to ~470 MPa.

Surface Sources:
• Crystal surfaces and grain boundaries can generate dislocations
• Important in thin films and nano-materials

3.2.9 Dislocation Pile-Ups

DEFINITION: A dislocation pile-up occurs when moving dislocations are blocked by an obstacle
(grain boundary, precipitate, Lomer-Cottrell lock) and accumulate behind it, creating a stress
concentration.
• First dislocation stops at obstacle; subsequent ones pile up behind it
• Pile-up creates a back stress on the source — eventually stopping it
• Stress concentration at obstacle tip = n·τ (where n = number of dislocations)
• Can nucleate cracks at grain boundaries (Zener-Stroh mechanism)
• Basis of Hall-Petch relationship — smaller grains → shorter pile-ups → higher stress for
yield
Hall-Petch: σ_y = σ_0 + k_y · d^(-1/2)
Where: σ₀ = friction stress, k_y = Hall-Petch slope, d = grain diameter
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Ultra-fine grain steel (grain size ~1 μm) can achieve yield strengths of 1–2
GPa through grain boundary strengthening via pile-up prevention.

3.3 Revision Points — Module III

• 4 types of defects: 0D (point), 1D (line/dislocation), 2D (planar), 3D (volume)
• Burgers vector: FCC = (a/2)<110>, BCC = (a/2)<111>
• Edge: b ⊥ line; Screw: b ∥ line; can also have Mixed
• Glide = conservative; Climb = non-conservative (needs diffusion)
• Dislocation energy ∝ Gb² → short Burgers vector preferred
• Frank-Read source → dislocation multiplication, τ = Gb/L
• Lomer-Cottrell lock → sessile, causes Stage II hardening
• SFE controls partial separation → affects cross-slip and work hardening
• Pile-ups → stress concentration, crack nucleation, Hall-Petch effect

3.4 Viva / Important Questions — Module III

Q19. Define a dislocation. Distinguish between edge and screw dislocations.
Q20. What is the Burgers vector? How is it determined using the Burgers circuit?
Q21. Explain the Frank-Read source mechanism with a diagram.
Q22. What is a Lomer-Cottrell lock? How does it contribute to work hardening?
Q23. Distinguish between dislocation glide and climb. Under what conditions does
climb occur?
Q24. Explain dislocation pile-ups and their role in crack initiation.
Q25. What is stacking fault energy? How does it affect the deformation behaviour of
FCC metals?
Q26. Explain the formation of jogs and kinks during dislocation intersection.
Q27. Apply Frank's rule: Does the reaction (a/2)[110] + (a/2)[011] → (a/2)[101] occur?
Justify.
Q28. Write the Hall-Petch equation and explain the physical basis of grain boundary
strengthening.
 MODULE IV — POLYCRYSTALLINE DEFORMATION & TENSION TEST (6
Hours)

4. PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE

MATERIALS

4.1 Role of Grain Boundaries in Deformation

DEFINITION: Grain boundaries are two-dimensional defects separating regions of different
crystallographic orientation (grains). They play a crucial role in strengthening, fracture, diffusion, and
deformation.
Grain Boundary Effects on Deformation (Dieter, Ch.4):
• Act as barriers to dislocation motion — dislocations cannot easily cross from one grain to
another due to crystallographic misorientation
• Require multiple slip systems to be active in each grain to maintain compatibility (Von Mises
criterion: 5 independent slip systems needed)
• Geometrically Necessary Dislocations (GNDs) form near boundaries to accommodate
strain gradients
• Higher grain boundary area (smaller grains) → more barriers → higher yield strength
• At elevated temperatures, grain boundaries are sites of diffusion and grain boundary
sliding (contributes to creep)

4.2 Strengthening by Grain Boundaries — Hall-Petch Relationship

σ_y = σ_0 + k_y · d^(-1/2)
Where:
• σ_y = yield strength
• σ₀ = friction stress (Peierls stress, solid solution contribution)
• k_y = Hall-Petch slope (locking parameter — measures grain boundary effectiveness)
• d = average grain diameter
Physical Explanation (Pile-up Model):
• Dislocations pile up at grain boundaries
• Stress at pile-up tip = n·τ (n = number of dislocations)
• n ∝ τ·d/Gb → stress concentration ∝ √d
• Critical stress to propagate across boundary → σ_y ∝ d^(-1/2)
KEY POINT: Hall-Petch equation predicts that reducing grain size from 100 μm to 1 μm increases
yield strength by 10× — a powerful non-precipitation strengthening method.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels achieve yield strength 350–700 MPa
through grain refinement to 5–20 μm, using microalloying elements (Nb, V, Ti) that pin grain
boundaries.

4.3 Yield Point Phenomenon

DEFINITION: The yield point phenomenon is the occurrence of a sharp upper yield point followed by
a sudden drop to a lower yield point, after which deformation proceeds at roughly constant (or slowly
increasing) stress — observed in low-carbon steels.
Mechanism — Cottrell Atmosphere (Dieter, Ch.4):
• In low-carbon steel, carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) atoms are interstitial — they fit between iron
atoms
• These atoms migrate (by diffusion) to the region of tensile stress below edge dislocations →
Cottrell atmosphere (segregation of solute atoms to dislocation stress fields)
• Cottrell atmospheres lock dislocations in place — additional stress (upper yield point,
σ_UYP) is needed to unpin them
• Once dislocations break free, they can move at lower stress (lower yield point, σ_LYP)
• The unpinned dislocations sweep through the crystal, creating a plastic zone called a Lüders
band (or stretcher strain mark)
• Lüders band propagates at constant stress until entire gauge length has yielded →
homogeneous deformation resumes

Stage Stress Level Physical Event

Elastic region σ < σ_UYP Bond stretching, no dislocation motion
Upper yield point σ = σ_UYP Dislocations unpin from Cottrell atmospheres
Yield point drop σ_UYP → σ_LYP Rapid multiplication of free dislocations
Lüders band σ ≈ σ_LYP Plastic band sweeps through specimen
propagation
Strain hardening σ > σ_LYP Work hardening begins after full Lüders
propagation

IMPORTANT: Lüders band marks (stretcher strains) are aesthetically unacceptable in automotive
body panels. Prevention: (1) Skin-pass rolling (pre-stretching ≥ 0.5%) to exhaust yield point; (2)
Adding Al to tie up nitrogen as AlN; (3) Using non-strain-ageing steels.

4.4 Strain Ageing

DEFINITION: Strain ageing is the increase in yield strength and hardness (and loss of ductility) that
occurs when a deformed metal is held at a moderate temperature. It is caused by diffusion of solute
atoms to dislocations that were freed by prior deformation.
• If steel is pre-deformed to remove yield point, then aged at 200°C → yield point reappears
(Cottrell atmosphere reforms around new free dislocations)
 • Blue brittleness in steel: enhanced strength at 200–300°C due to dynamic strain ageing
during tensile test
• Rate of ageing ∝ diffusivity of solute atoms
• Can be beneficial (precipitation hardening) or harmful (embrittlement)
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Ship hull failures in WWII (Liberty ships) were partly attributed to strain
ageing embrittlement of low-carbon steel at low temperatures, leading to brittle fracture.

4.5 Strengthening Mechanisms in Polycrystalline Materials

Multiple mechanisms can increase yield strength:

Mechanism Principle Equation Example

Grain boundary Barriers to dislocation σ_y = σ₀ + k_y·d^(-1/2) HSLA steel, nanocrystalline
strengthening motion metals
Solid solution Solute atoms distort Δσ ∝ C^(1/2) or C^(2/3) Brass (Cu-Zn), stainless
strengthening lattice, impede steel
dislocations
Precipitation Fine precipitates Δσ ∝ √f/r (Orowan) or Al 2024, Ni superalloys
hardening block or shear f^(1/2)
dislocations
Dispersion Incoherent particles Orowan bypass: τ = Gb/L SAP (Al-Al₂ O₃ ), ODS
strengthening (non-shearable) steels
Strain/Work Dislocation- σ = σ₀ + αGb√ρ (Taylor) Cold-rolled steel, wire
hardening dislocation drawing
interactions

4.5.1 Solid Solution Strengthening

• Substitutional solutes (different atomic size) → elastic strain fields → impede dislocations
• Interstitial solutes (C, N in steel) → stronger effect due to tetragonal distortion
• Strengthening ∝ mismatch parameter: Δσ ∝ G·ε_s^(3/2)·C^(1/2)
• Maximum effect when solute atom size mismatch is large
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Copper-zinc alloys (brass): adding 30% Zn to copper increases σ_y from
~70 MPa to ~200 MPa. Interstitial carbon in iron is 100× more effective than substitutional solutes.

4.5.2 Precipitation Hardening

• Fine coherent precipitates → dislocations cut through them (shearing mechanism)
• Coarse/incoherent precipitates → dislocations loop around them (Orowan mechanism)
Orowan stress: τ = Gb / (L - 2r) ≈ Gb/L
• Optimum particle size and spacing for maximum strength (peak aging)
• Over-aging → particles coarsen → spacing L increases → strength decreases
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Al-Cu alloy (Duralumin, 2024-T4): aging at 200°C for 12h produces θ'
(CuAl₂ ) precipitates, raising yield strength from 100 MPa (annealed) to 470 MPa.

4.6 Tension Test — Engineering & True Stress-Strain Curves

DEFINITION: The tension test (or tensile test) is the most widely used mechanical test. A
standardised specimen is subjected to uniaxial tensile load and load-extension (stress-strain) data is
recorded.

4.6.1 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve — Key Parameters

Engineering stress: S = F/A₀
Engineering strain: e = (L - L₀ )/L₀ = ΔL/L₀

Parameter Symbol Definition / Significance

Proportional limit σ_PL Max stress for which σ-ε is linear (Hooke's Law obeyed)
Elastic limit σ_EL Max stress for fully elastic (reversible) behaviour
Yield strength (0.2% σ_y or YS Stress at 0.2% plastic strain — practical design limit
offset)
Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS or Maximum engineering stress — onset of necking
σ_u
Fracture stress σ_f Engineering stress at fracture (lower than UTS due to necking)
Elongation at fracture EL% Measure of ductility: (L_f - L₀ )/L₀ × 100
Reduction in area RA% Measure of ductility: (A₀ - A_f)/A₀ × 100
Toughness (area under U_T Energy absorbed to fracture per unit volume
σ-ε)

4.6.2 True Stress-Strain Curve

True stress: σ_T = F/A (instantaneous area)
True strain: ε_T = ln(L/L₀ ) = ln(A₀ /A) (by volume conservation)
Relationship: σ_T = S(1 + e) ; ε_T = ln(1 + e)
After necking:

σ_T = σ_T,avg · correction factor (Bridgman correction for

triaxiality)
Power Law (Hollomon Equation):

σ_T = K · ε_T^n
Where n = strain hardening exponent, K = strength coefficient
• n = 0 → perfectly plastic (no hardening)
• n = 1 → linear elastic (Hookean)
 • Typical values: n ≈ 0.1–0.5 (FCC metals higher than BCC)
KEY POINT: At UTS, the condition for necking instability is: dF = 0 → d(σA) = 0 → which gives the
Considère criterion: dσ/dε = σ, meaning the true strain at necking equals n (the strain hardening
exponent).
Necking begins when ε_T = n (Considère criterion)

4.6.3 Evaluation of Tensile Properties

• Young's Modulus (E): Slope of linear portion → E = σ/ε
• Yield strength: 0.2% offset or proportional limit
• UTS: Peak of engineering σ-ε curve
• Ductility: %EL and %RA — high %RA indicates greater ductility in forming
• Resilience: Area under elastic portion → U_R = σ_y²/(2E)
• Toughness: Area under entire σ-ε curve → needs both strength and ductility
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Structural steel (ASTM A36): E = 200 GPa, σ_y = 250 MPa, UTS = 400
MPa, %EL = 23%. Tool steel: σ_y = 1500 MPa, UTS = 1800 MPa, %EL = 8% — stronger but less
tough.

4.7 Tensile Instability — Necking

Diffuse Necking: Gradual reduction in cross-section over a long gauge length — begins at UTS
Localised Necking: Sharp reduction at a point — occurs after diffuse necking

For sheet metal: localised necking when ε₁ = 2n/(1 + ε₂ /ε₁ )

• Materials with high n → delay necking → more uniform deformation → better formability
• Strain rate hardening (m) also delays necking: σ = C·ε̇^m
Total instability: dσ/σ = dε (Considère) + m·d(ln ε̇
)

4.8 Effect of Strain Rate and Temperature

Effect of Strain Rate:

• Higher strain rate → higher flow stress (at constant T)
• Strain rate sensitivity: m = ∂(ln σ)/∂(ln ε̇) at constant T, ε
• High m → good superplastic formability (m ≈ 0.5–1.0 for superplastics)
σ₂ /σ₁ = (ε̇
₂ /ε̇
₁ )^m

Effect of Temperature:
• Higher T → lower flow stress (thermal activation helps dislocations overcome barriers)
• Higher T → lower strain hardening rate
 • Above homologous temperature T/T_m > 0.4 → significant recovery/recrystallization
• Hot working exploits high-temperature softening for forming
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Superplastic alloys (e.g., Pb-Sn eutectic, Ti-6Al-4V fine-grained) can be
elongated >1000% without necking at elevated temperature and low strain rates due to grain
boundary sliding (m ≈ 0.5).

4.9 Revision Points — Module IV

• Grain boundaries → barriers to dislocations → Hall-Petch: σ_y = σ₀ + k_y·d^(-1/2)
• Yield point phenomenon → Cottrell atmosphere (C, N atoms lock dislocations in BCC Fe)
• Upper YP → unpinning; Lower YP → free dislocation motion; Lüders band formation
• Strain ageing → solute atoms re-pin free dislocations after deformation
• 5 strengthening mechanisms: grain boundary, solid solution, precipitation, dispersion, work
hardening
• Necking starts at UTS → Considère: ε_neck = n
• True stress-strain: Hollomon equation σ = Kεⁿ
• Higher T → lower flow stress; Higher ε̇ → higher flow stress

4.10 Viva / Important Questions — Module IV

Q29. Explain the Hall-Petch relationship. What is its physical basis? Does it hold for
nano-grain materials?
Q30. Describe the yield point phenomenon in mild steel. How can it be eliminated?
Q31. What is strain ageing? Distinguish it from precipitation hardening.
Q32. Compare Orowan looping and particle shearing mechanisms for precipitation
hardening.
Q33. Define necking instability. Derive the Considère criterion.
Q34. Distinguish between engineering and true stress-strain curves. When does the
true stress curve diverge from engineering stress curve?
Q35. What is the strain hardening exponent n? How does it affect formability?
Q36. Explain how temperature and strain rate affect the flow stress of metals.
Q37. Write Hollomon's power law. A metal has K = 1000 MPa and n = 0.3. Find the true
stress at ε = 0.2.
 MODULE V — FRACTURE, FATIGUE & CREEP (6 Hours)

5. FRACTURE OF METALS

5.1 Introduction to Fracture

DEFINITION: Fracture is the separation of a solid body into two or more parts under the action of
stress. It is a critical failure mode in engineering structures and must be understood for reliable
design.

5.2 Types of Fracture (Dieter, Ch.7)

Type Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture

Plastic deformation Extensive (cup-and-cone) Little or none
Crack propagation Slow, stable Rapid, unstable
Energy absorbed High (tough) Low (brittle)
Warning Visible necking/distortion Sudden, catastrophic
Fracture surface Fibrous, grey, 45° shear lips Bright, granular, flat (cleavage)
Materials Soft metals (Al, Cu, steel at RT) Cast iron, ceramics, BCC at low T
Temperature Favoured at high T Favoured at low T

5.2.1 Ductile Fracture — Cup-and-Cone

Mechanism (Microvoid Coalescence):
1. Microvoid nucleation at inclusions, second-phase particles, or dislocation pile-ups
2. Void growth under tensile hydrostatic stress
3. Void coalescence (impingement of neighbouring voids)
4. Final fracture by shear lip formation (45° to tensile axis)
• Produces dimpled fracture surface (visible by SEM) — each dimple = one void
• Cup-and-cone fracture: flat central zone (tensile) + inclined shear lip (shear)
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Cup-and-cone fracture is observed in tensile specimens of mild steel,
aluminium alloys, and copper. The dimple size correlates with inclusion spacing.

5.2.2 Brittle Fracture — Cleavage

Characteristics:
• Occurs along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes) — low-index planes
 • FCC metals do NOT cleave (cross-slip prevents stress build-up)
• BCC metals cleave on {100} planes at low temperatures
• HCP metals cleave on basal {0001} planes
• River pattern: Step marks on cleavage facets — indicate crack propagation direction
• Crack velocity can reach speed of sound in the material

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition (DBTT):

• BCC metals transition from ductile to brittle below a critical temperature (DBTT or T_transition)
• FCC metals remain ductile at cryogenic temperatures (no DBTT)
• DBTT measured by Charpy V-notch impact test (energy vs. temperature curve)
• Factors raising DBTT: strain ageing, irradiation, high carbon content, coarse grain size
IMPORTANT: The Titanic sank partly because its hull steel (1912 era, high S and P) had a DBTT
above the North Atlantic ocean temperature (~0°C), causing brittle fracture of riveted seams on
impact with the iceberg.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Nuclear reactor pressure vessels: steel must have DBTT well below
operating temperature. Irradiation raises DBTT over service life (radiation embrittlement) —
monitored using surveillance specimens.

5.3 Theoretical Cohesive Strength of Metals

σ_cohesive = E·γ_s / (π·a₀ )^(1/2) ≈ E/10
Where γ_s = surface energy, a₀ = atomic spacing. Observed fracture stress is much lower due to pre-
existing cracks (Griffith).

5.4 Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture

DEFINITION: Griffith (1921) proposed that all real materials contain pre-existing micro-cracks (or
flaws). Fracture occurs when the strain energy released by crack extension equals the surface energy
required to create new crack surfaces.
Energy Balance Criterion:

Griffith criterion: σ_f = √(2Eγ_s / πa) [plane stress]

For plane strain: σ_f = √(2Eγ_s / πa(1-ν²))
Where: E = elastic modulus, γ_s = specific surface energy, a = half crack length
Key Implications:
• Fracture stress ∝ (crack length)^(-1/2) — larger cracks → easier fracture
• Fracture stress ∝ (surface energy)^(1/2) — materials with higher γ_s are tougher
• Originally derived for perfectly brittle materials (glass) — Orowan modified for metals by
replacing γ_s with γ_s + γ_p (plastic work term)
Irwin's modification: K_I = σ √(πa) (Stress Intensity Factor)
 K_Ic = σ_c √(πa) (Fracture Toughness)
KEY POINT: Fracture toughness K_Ic is a material property (unlike σ_f which depends on crack
size). Higher K_Ic = tougher material. Units: MPa√m. Steel ≈ 50–200 MPa√m; Ceramics ≈ 1–5
MPa√m; Polymers ≈ 1–5 MPa√m.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: De Havilland Comet aircraft disasters (1954): Square windows created
stress concentrations at corners. Fatigue cracks grew to critical size and caused catastrophic brittle
fracture at 35,000 ft (−50°C). Led to oval window design and fracture mechanics-based design codes.

5.4.1 Metallographic Aspects of Fracture

• Cleavage facets: Flat, shiny — along {100} in BCC
• Dimpled rupture: Equiaxial dimples = tensile loading; elongated dimples = shear loading
• Intergranular fracture: Crack along grain boundaries — grain boundary embrittlement
(hydrogen, temper embrittlement)
• Transgranular fracture: Crack through grains — more common in room-temperature fracture

5.5 Fracture of Single Crystals

• Cleavage in single crystals occurs on specific planes — {100} for BCC (α-Fe), {001} for rock
salt structure
• Schmid factor analysis applies — cleavage occurs when resolved tensile stress on cleavage
plane exceeds critical value
• Competing mechanism: slip vs. cleavage — whichever has lower critical stress wins

6. FATIGUE

6.1 Introduction to Fatigue

DEFINITION: Fatigue is the process of progressive, localised, and permanent structural damage that
occurs in materials subjected to cyclic (repeated) stresses. Failure can occur at stresses far below the
static yield or ultimate strength.
Significance: ~80–90% of all service failures in engineering components are fatigue failures (Dieter,
Ch.12). Fatigue is insidious — it occurs without warning.

6.2 Stress Cycles

Stress amplitude: σ_a = (σ_max - σ_min)/2
Mean stress: σ_m = (σ_max + σ_min)/2
Stress ratio: R = σ_min/σ_max
Stress range: Δσ = σ_max - σ_min = 2σ_a
Types of Cyclic Stress:
• Completely reversed (R = -1): σ_m = 0, most damaging — used in standard S-N testing
• Pulsating (R = 0): σ_min = 0
• Repeated (R > 0): Both stresses same sign

6.3 The S-N Curve (Wöhler Curve)

DEFINITION: The S-N curve (stress vs. number of cycles to failure) is the fundamental
characterisation of fatigue behaviour. Developed by Wöhler (1860s) from rotating bending tests on
railway axles.

Fatigue Limit (Endurance Limit) — σ_e:

• Steels and BCC metals show a distinct horizontal asymptote — the fatigue limit (σ_e)
• Below σ_e, specimens theoretically last indefinitely (infinite life)
• Typically: σ_e ≈ 0.5 × UTS for steels (in air, R = -1)
• FCC metals (aluminium, copper) do NOT show a true fatigue limit — S-N curve continues to
slope down
• For non-ferrous metals, fatigue strength at 10⁷ or 10⁸ cycles is used

High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) vs. Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF):

Feature Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) High Cycle Fatigue (HCF)
Cycle range N < 10⁴–10⁵ N > 10⁵
Stress level Near or above yield strength Below yield strength
Deformation Significant plastic strain per cycle Primarily elastic strain
Characterisation Strain-life (ε-N) curve Stress-life (S-N) curve
Governing equation Coffin-Manson: Δεₚ·Nf^c = εf' Basquin: σ_a·Nf^b = σf'
Application Thermal cycling, pressure vessels Rotating machinery, springs

6.4 Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue

Tensile mean stress reduces fatigue life; compressive mean stress increases it. Several empirical
relations:

Goodman (1899): σ_a/σ_e + σ_m/UTS = 1

Soderberg: σ_a/σ_e + σ_m/σ_y = 1 (conservative)
Gerber (parabolic): σ_a/σ_e + (σ_m/UTS)² = 1 (less conservative)
KEY POINT: Goodman diagram is most commonly used in design. Points inside the diagram → safe
design. Engineers use Goodman with a safety factor of 1.5–2.0.
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Shot peening introduces compressive residual stresses on component
surface (springs, gears, turbine blades) — shifts operating point on Goodman diagram, significantly
improving fatigue life. Used extensively in automotive valve springs.

6.5 Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve

Under cyclic loading, the stress-strain response changes compared to monotonic loading:
• Cyclic hardening: Material becomes harder (higher stress for same strain) — common in soft
metals with low initial dislocation density (annealed copper)
• Cyclic softening: Material becomes softer — common in cold-worked metals with high initial
dislocation density
• Hysteresis loop: The area of the closed σ-ε loop represents energy dissipated per cycle
(plastic work → heat)
• Masing behaviour: Hysteresis loop shape at different strain amplitudes is geometrically
similar
• Stable cyclic response establishes the cyclic stress-strain curve (peak stress vs. peak
strain)
Cyclic power law: σ_a = K' · (ε_a)^n'

6.6 Fatigue Crack Initiation and Propagation

Initiation:
• Occurs at stress concentrations — notches, keyways, holes, surface scratches, inclusions
• Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs): Localised slip bands that form and thicken under cyclic
loading, eventually creating intrusions/extrusions at the surface → crack nucleation
• Intrusions and extrusions on the surface form due to irreversible cyclic slip → notch-like
surface features that nucleate Stage I cracks

Stage I Crack Growth:

• Crack grows along maximum shear stress plane (45° to stress axis) for 2–5 grain diameters
• Controlled by cyclic slip; very slow growth

Stage II Crack Growth (Paris Law):

• Crack turns to grow perpendicular to maximum tensile stress (Mode I)
• Fatigue striations on fracture surface — each striation = one cycle of loading
Paris-Erdogan Law: da/dN = C·(ΔK)^m
• ΔK = stress intensity factor range = Δσ√(πa)
• C and m are material constants (m ≈ 2–4 for metals)
• Crack accelerates as a increases, until K_max = K_Ic → final fracture
IMPORTANT: Fatigue striations (beach marks) on fracture surfaces are definitive evidence of fatigue
failure — they can be counted to estimate cycles to fracture and traced to the initiation site, crucial for
failure analysis.

6.7 Fatigue Prevention and Design

• Surface treatments: Shot peening, carburising, nitriding → compressive residual stress
• Smooth geometry: Avoid sharp notches; use generous radii at stress concentrations
• Surface finish: Polished surfaces → fewer initiation sites
• Protective coatings: Prevent corrosion fatigue (corrosive environment drastically reduces
fatigue life)
• Proper material selection: High UTS steel → higher fatigue limit
• Pre-stressing: Beneficial compressive pre-stress (e.g., cold expansion of bolt holes)

7. CREEP AND STRESS RUPTURE

7.1 Introduction to Creep

DEFINITION: Creep is the time-dependent, progressive plastic deformation of a material under
constant stress at elevated temperature (typically T > 0.3–0.4 T_m, where T_m is melting point in
Kelvin).
Creep is critical in high-temperature applications: jet engines, power plant steam turbines, nuclear
reactors, and chemical processing equipment.

7.2 Creep Curve (Dieter, Ch.13)

A typical creep curve (strain vs. time at constant T and σ) shows three distinct stages:

Stage Name Strain Rate (ε̇) Dominant Mechanism Duration

0 Elastic + — Instantaneous elastic + some At loading
(Instantaneous) Primary plastic plastic
I Primary / Decreasing Work hardening > recovery Short
Transient Creep
II Secondary / Constant Work hardening = recovery Longest
Steady-State (minimum) (dynamic equilibrium) (design
Creep basis)
III Tertiary Creep Increasing Necking, grain boundary Short →
rapidly cracking, voiding fracture
KEY POINT: Secondary (steady-state) creep rate is the most important parameter for design. The
minimum creep rate (ε̇_s) determines service life at elevated temperature.

7.3 Creep Rate Equations

Norton's Power Law: ε̇
_s = A · σ^n · exp(-Q_c/RT)
Where:
• A = material constant
• n = stress exponent (n ≈ 3–8 for metals, varies with mechanism)
• Q_c = activation energy for creep (≈ activation energy for self-diffusion)
• R = gas constant, T = absolute temperature
Larson-Miller Parameter: P = T(C + log t_r) = constant
Where T = temperature (K), t_r = rupture life, C ≈ 20 for steels
Used to extrapolate short-time high-T data to predict long-time lower-T behaviour.

7.4 Mechanisms of Creep Deformation

Dislocation Creep (Power-Law Creep), n = 3–8:

• Dislocation glide + climb (non-conservative movement)
• Dislocations bypass obstacles by climb → dynamic recovery
• Dominant at intermediate-to-high stresses and T > 0.5 T_m
• Q_c ≈ Q_self-diffusion

Diffusion Creep (Nabarro-Herring), n = 1:

• Atoms diffuse through the crystal lattice from regions under compression to regions under
tension
• Nabarro-Herring creep: Lattice diffusion — dominant at high T, low σ
ε̇= A · σ · D_L / (d²·kT)
• Coble creep: Grain boundary diffusion — dominant at lower T
ε̇= A · σ · D_gb / (d³·kT)
• Both decrease with increasing grain size d → coarse grain alloys preferred for creep
resistance

Grain Boundary Sliding, n = 1–2:

• Adjacent grains slide relative to each other at their common boundary
• Important at high T and fine grain size
• Can be accommodated by diffusion or dislocation activity
 Mechanism Stress Temperature Range Grain Size Effect
Exponent n
Nabarro-Herring diffusion 1 Very high (> 0.8 Tm) ε̇ ∝ d⁻ ²
Coble (GB diffusion) 1 Moderate-high (> 0.6 ε̇ ∝ d⁻ ³
Tm)
Power-law (dislocation) 3–8 Intermediate (0.4–0.8 Little effect
Tm)
Grain boundary sliding 1–2 Moderate-high ε̇ ∝ d⁻ ¹·⁻ ²

7.5 Stress Rupture Test

DEFINITION: The stress rupture (creep rupture) test measures the time to fracture under a constant
load at a specified elevated temperature. It provides rupture life, rupture ductility, and the fracture
mode.
• Test performed at constant stress (or load) and temperature
• Rupture life decreases exponentially with increasing stress or temperature
• Monkman-Grant relationship: ε̇_s · t_r = C_MG (constant)
log t_r = C - n·log σ (at constant T)
• Fracture surface: intergranular (along grain boundaries) — creep cavitation/voiding
INDUSTRIAL EXAMPLE: Steam turbine blades in power plants operate at ~600°C and stress ~100
MPa for 100,000+ hours. Nickel superalloys (IN718, Waspaloy) or directionally solidified/single crystal
blades are used to resist creep while maintaining high fatigue strength.

7.6 Structural Changes During Creep

• Subgrain formation: Dislocations rearrange into low-energy subgrain boundaries
(polygonisation)
• Dislocation climb and annihilation: Reduces dislocation density → softening
• Grain boundary cavitation: Void nucleation at grain boundaries (especially triple points)
• Precipitate coarsening (Ostwald ripening): Fine precipitates grow → lose effectiveness →
reduce creep resistance (over-aging)
• Recrystallization: Can occur during tertiary creep → grain structure changes
IMPORTANT: Single-crystal nickel superalloy turbine blades (e.g., CMSX-4) eliminate grain
boundaries entirely — no grain boundary sliding or cavitation possible. This allows turbine inlet
temperatures of ~1300°C, improving engine efficiency by 1% per 10°C increase.

7.7 Prevention and Control of Creep

• High melting point alloys: Tungsten, Mo, Re-based alloys for extreme temperatures
• Solid solution strengthening: Addition of Mo, W, Re to nickel superalloys
 • Precipitation hardening: γ' (Ni₃ Al) phase in nickel superalloys — coherent, stable
precipitates
• Coarse grain size: Reduces grain boundary area → less grain boundary sliding and diffusion
• Directional solidification: Eliminates transverse grain boundaries (DS blades)
• Single crystal blades: Eliminate all grain boundaries
• Oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS): Fine stable oxides (Y₂ O₃ ) pin dislocations at high
T
• Thermal barrier coatings (TBC): ZrO₂ reduces temperature of metallic component

7.8 Revision Points — Module V

• Fracture types: ductile (cup-and-cone, dimples) vs. brittle (cleavage, river marks)
• DBTT in BCC metals; FCC metals don't show DBTT
• Griffith criterion: σ_f = √(2Eγ_s/πa) — larger crack → lower fracture stress
• K_Ic = fracture toughness (material property); K_I = σ√(πa) (applied)
• Fatigue: ~80% of engineering failures; S-N curve; fatigue limit in steels
• Goodman diagram for mean stress correction
• PSBs → intrusions/extrusions → Stage I crack → Stage II (Paris Law) → fracture
• Paris Law: da/dN = C(ΔK)^m
• Creep curve: primary (decreasing ε̇) → secondary (constant ε̇) → tertiary (increasing ε̇)
• Norton: ε̇_s = Aσⁿ·exp(-Q/RT); n=1 diffusion; n=3-8 dislocation creep
• Creep resistance: coarse grains, single crystal, solid solution + precipitation hardening

7.9 Viva / Important Questions — Module V

Q38. Compare ductile and brittle fracture in terms of mechanism, fracture surface
appearance, and engineering significance.
Q39. State and derive the Griffith criterion for brittle fracture. What modification did
Orowan make for metals?
Q40. What is fracture toughness K_Ic? How is it measured? Compare K_Ic values for
steel, ceramics, and polymers.
Q41. Define fatigue. What percentage of engineering failures are due to fatigue?
Explain the S-N curve.
Q42. Describe the stages of fatigue crack initiation and propagation. What are fatigue
striations?
Q43. State the Goodman criterion and explain how mean stress affects fatigue life.
Q44. Draw and explain the three stages of a creep curve. What is the most important
parameter for design?
Q45. Explain the mechanism of power-law (dislocation) creep and diffusion creep.
How does grain size affect each?
Q46. A steel has K_Ic = 50 MPa√m and contains a crack of half-length 2 mm. Find the
fracture stress.
Q47. How does single-crystal manufacturing of turbine blades improve creep
resistance? Name industrial examples.
 COMPREHENSIVE REVISION SUMMARY — ALL MODULES

QUICK REFERENCE — KEY EQUATIONS

Topic Key Equation Parameters

Hooke's Law σ = Eε ; τ = Gγ E = Young's, G = Shear modulus
Poisson's ratio ν = -εlateral/εaxial Typical: 0.25–0.35 for metals
Von Mises Criterion (σ₁ -σ₂ )² + (σ₂ -σ₃ )² + (σ₃ -σ₁ )² Ductile metals
= 2σ_y²
Tresca Criterion τ_max = (σ₁ -σ₃ )/2 = σ_y/2 Conservative
Schmid's Law τ_RSS = σ·cosφ·cosλ Max m = 0.5 at φ=λ=45°
Frank-Read Source τ = Gb/L L = pinned segment length
Hall-Petch σ_y = σ₀ + k_y·d^(-1/2) d = grain diameter
Hollomon Equation σ_T = K·ε^n n = strain hardening exponent
Considère Criterion ε_neck = n Necking onset at UTS
True Stress σ_T = S(1+e) S = engineering stress
Griffith Criterion σ_f = √(2Eγ_s/πa) a = half crack length
Stress Intensity K_I = σ√(πa) K_Ic = fracture toughness
Paris Law da/dN = C(ΔK)^m C, m = material constants
Goodman σ_a/σ_e + σ_m/UTS = 1 Mean stress correction
Norton Creep ε̇_s = A·σ^n·exp(-Q/RT) n=1 diffusion; n=3-8 disloc.
Larson-Miller P = T(C + log t_r) C ≈ 20 for steels
Dislocation Energy E ≈ αGb² α ≈ 0.5–1.0
Orowan Stress τ = Gb/L L = inter-particle spacing

KEYWORDS GLOSSARY

Keyword Module One-Line Definition

Elastic deformation I Reversible deformation obeying Hooke's Law
Stress tensor I 3×3 matrix of 9 stress components at a point
Principal stress I Normal stress on plane with zero shear stress
Von Mises criterion I Distortion energy yield criterion for ductile metals
 Keyword Module One-Line Definition
Schmid factor II cos(φ)·cos(λ) — orientation factor for slip
CRSS II Minimum shear stress to initiate slip on a slip system
Stage II hardening II Linear work hardening due to dislocation forest interactions
Burgers vector III Vector describing magnitude and direction of dislocation
displacement
Frank-Read source III Mechanism for dislocation multiplication from a pinned segment
Lomer-Cottrell lock III Sessile dislocation formed by reaction of two partials on {111}
planes
Stacking fault energy III Energy per unit area of stacking fault — controls partial separation
Hall-Petch IV Grain boundary strengthening equation: σ_y = σ₀ + k_y·d^(-1/2)
Cottrell atmosphere IV Segregation of interstitial atoms to dislocation stress field in BCC
Lüders band IV Propagating band of plastic deformation after yield point in mild
steel
Necking IV Localised reduction in cross-section beginning at UTS
Griffith criterion V Fracture when strain energy release = surface energy creation
Fracture toughness V Critical stress intensity factor — material resistance to crack growth
K_Ic
Persistent slip band V Localised cyclic slip band that nucleates fatigue cracks
Paris Law V da/dN = C(ΔK)^m — fatigue crack growth rate equation
Creep V Time-dependent deformation at elevated T under constant stress
Dislocation climb V Non-conservative dislocation motion requiring vacancy diffusion

END OF NOTES — MTPC2006 DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

Based on: G.E. Dieter — Mechanical Metallurgy | Porter, Easterling & Sherif — Phase Transformations in Metals and
Alloys