The Motto ofevery researcher should be, "Findit and tell it like it is"

[Link]
Research is a scientific and systematic search ftor pertinent
SDecific topic. It is an art of scientific investigation. Researchinformation on a
careful investigation through search for new facts. Social of any kind is a
defined by [Link] in the following research has been
as the systematic method of
words. "Wemay define social research
diSCOvering new facts or verifying old
cequences, inter-relationships, causal explanations and the
facts, their
govern them". natural laws which
 Research Methodology

CHARACTERISTIC OF
SOCIAL RESEARCH

of Human Beings: Social research deals with the

social
1. Study of Behaviour and
the behaviour of human beings as members of society,
phenomena. It studies
attitudes under different circumstances.
their feelings, responses,
Facts: Social researchis carried on both, for discovering new
2. Discovering New
of course, is the
facts and verification of the old ones. The object of every science,
facts, relationship, and new laws governing the
discovery of new new

phenomena. old concepts is also needed, speciallyy

But constant verification of the
in case of dynamic sciences. Verification is needed because of two reasons. Firstly,
be an improvement in the technique of research and it is necessary
to
there may
test the old concepts by this improved technique. Secondly, the phenomena under
study might have undergone a change and it may be required to test the validity
of old concepts in the changed circumstances. Insocial sciencea lot of research is
being carried on for both purposes and has resulted in the discovery of new facts
as well as
modificationof old concepts.
3. Scientific Analysis: Social research tries to establish causal connectionbetween
various human activities. It is really very interesting to note whether various
complex human activities, are being performed only at random without any
sequence, law or system behind them. At first causal look at varied human
behaviour, attitudes, moods and temperaments, the presence of any system may
appear to be an impossibility, but a close and patiernt study of different cases,
their scientiic analysis and comparison and logical interpretation is bound to
disclose the truth, that most of them are not merely haphazard as they appear but
motivated by definite rules, perfect system and universal laws. The main purpose
of social research is therefore to discover these laws, so that they may be used in
the guided growth of human society.

BASIC AsSUMPTIONS OF SoCIAL RESEARCH

The application of scientific methods of

sociological researchis based uporn certain
assumptions, which may be classified as below.
1. Existence of cause and effect
relationship It has to be accepted as a basis of
social research that there exists cause and effect
social activities. These causes
relationship between various
always produce similar results and, therefore, if
they are known they can be used effectively in checking the evils
them. For example, social crime resulting fromm
may be caused by poverty and frustration In
other words, wherever there is
poverty and frustration it will result in crimne.
Therefore, poverty and frustration have to be eliminated first in order to
crimes. eliminate
 3
Introduction
is that
sequenceo r lawin social activities- Another assumption
2. Existence of
haphazard random way. There
is some
various social activities do not occur in a
to
If this trend or system is located it is possible
system some trend behind them. For example, if it is proved that
predict the future course of social phenomena. of the
of increases by some specific rate, then population
country
population
safely be predicted.
place in future years can
3. Possibility of detached study Even though man is a n integral
- part of the
it is possible for him to study it by
society on which he is investigating still his ownfeelings and emotions
keeping himself separate from the systenm. Hence, is a difficult task, it is
woud not be reflected in the study. Even if such a study
possible. different from
4. Existence of ideal types- Ina society, everyoneis not entirely
People can be grouped
each [Link]
into fairly, homogenous classes known as
to the whole
applicable
ideal type. made from this
study study can be made

society wherever it may exist.

5. Possibility of a representative sample - For research purpose, it is possible
called
that instead of studying the whole population, a representative group
can be undertaken. The inferences
drawnfrom this representative sample
sample
will apply to the whole population

OBJECT OF RESEARCH

a n s w e r s to questions through the.

The purpose of research is to discover
The main aim of research is to find out the
application of scierntific procedures.
has not been discovered yet. Though each
truth which is hidden and which
we may think of research objectives
research study has its own specific purpose,
asfalling into a number of following broad groupings.
or to achieve new insights into it
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon research
view are termed as exploratory or formulative
(studies with this object in
studies);
2. To portray accurately the
characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies);
which something occurs or with which it is
[Link] determine the frequency with
object
with this in view are known as
associated with something else (studies
diagnosticresearch studies);
between variables (such studies
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
are knownas hypothesis-testing research studies).
 4
Research Methodology

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following
1. Desire to get a research degree along withits consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems. i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake

research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships,
social thinking and awakening

QUALTIES OF A GoOD RESEARCH WORKER

The success of a research work, to a great extent depends upon the qualities of the
researcher. It is difficult to give hard and fast rules regarding the requisite
qualifications and virtues of a research but certain broad qualities can be pointed
out. The qualities are two fold:
1) General qualities that are needed for any research.
2) Specific qualities that are concerning the particularresearch.

GENERAL QUALITIES
The mairn general qualities necessary for the success in the research work are as
follows:
1. Scientific Attitude: The first essential quality of a successful
that he must possess a 'scientific frame of mind'i.e.
research worker is
determination and ability to
get the naked facts and not to be influenced by mere
notions or by one'sown wishes. appearances or by prevalent
'Wolf calls this attitude as sine qua none of all1
science. According to him, "he who is credulous
face value or is so enough to take things at their
lacking independence and initiative that he cannot break away
from customary ideas or is so
wishes has not the partial as to be influenced by his desires and
2. making man of science"
of a
Imagination: A research worker must possessa high
power. He must be able to degree of imagination
prove deeper and
social
phenomena and be able to catch the deeper into the realm of abstract
significance inherent in them. He
 5
Introduction
which formsa
should be able to grasp and visualize intangible
aspects of society
major part of the social phenomena. research requires unlimited patienceand
3. Perseverance: The work of scientific science where the
so in case of social
inexhaustible perseverance. It is more
in the natural environment
and the facility of
phenomena has to be observed
of science sometimes it requires
guided research is absent. Even in case physicalThe research worker, therefore,
make an invention.
years of continuous labour to over long periods even
when
must be able to work patiently and continuously
him
the possibility of near success is not there to encourage
4. A Quick Grasping Power: The research
worker should possess power to
Most of the circumstances present
grasp the significance of things quickly. suddenness, when he is not
themselves before the research worker with great
at once
to grasp their significance
prepared to meet them. All such times he has
and react in proper time.
should be very clear in his concepts.
5. Clarity of Thinking: The research worker
a thorough and clear knowledge
Clarity of concepts can also be attained by having
of the subject under study.

SPECIFICQUALITIES
The Chief qualities required are as follows: worker should have a complete
research
1. Knowledge of the Subject : The
under study. He should therefore,
read all the texts on
knowledge of the subject
about the subject under study. The knowledge
the matter, and form a clear-cut idea schedule and getting proper
in preparing forms of questionnaire and
helps face to face discussion and remove any doubts
information. He can enter into

arising in the minds of people

the regarding the study. should also
of the Technique of Research: The research worker
2. Knowledge that is to be applied to the
intimate knowledge of the technique
possess the absence of such
In the
know its details and limitations.
problem. He should errors and the
the research worker is likely to commit methodological
knowledge sound.
not be
deduction drawn by him may taste
3. Personal Taste in
the Study: The research worker should take personal in
in work and keep high
undertaken. This will always inspire him
in the study monotonous and tiresome and
times of difficulties. A
forced work is often very
does not mean, that he
results. But personal taste
may not yield very tangible worker must be unprejudiced and
free from
should be party man. The research

all preconceptions. research worker

Informants: It is desirable that the
4. Familiarity about the whom he is studying. This is
with the people
should make himself familiar
of the research worker
from two points of view. Firstly, the familiarity
important from
him intimate informnation For example, refugees
the people will help to get their language, culture
West Pakistan would talk more freely to a person knowing
 6 Research Methodology

of familiarity is that in this

or living than to astranger. The second advantage thanif he
the researcher will be able to appreciate their vieWs more properly
way to P.V. Young "Interviewingcan
is completely unfamiliar with them. According
sensitive and responsive to
be carried on successfully only by one who socially
is
both into the interview
the interview and is able to enter at least victoriously
social situations related to him by the respondent".
process and into the
no preconceptions about the
5. Unbiased Attitude: The researcher should have
rescarch with
subject under study. He should go to hisunbiased attitude absolutely dleanslate. The
are worth mentioring.
following remarks of P.V. Young about data. He is not a
"A scientist avoids personal and emotional interpretation of
debtor taking issue with a side. He maintains an open mind and tests his finding
and assumptions. He looks for the facts which would substantiate and give
theory a new meaning and vitality"

CRITERIA OF GoOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is
important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method
employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria.
(1) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts
be used.
(2) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
anotherresearcherto repeat the research for further advancement; keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
(3) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
(4) The researcher should report with complete frankness about flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
(5) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
and the methods of analysis used should be significance
reliability of the data should be checked
appropriate. The validity and
carefully.
(6) Conclusions should be confined to those justified
and limited to those for which the data by the data
of the research
provide an
adequate basis.
(7) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
has a good reputation in researcher and is a
person of
experienced,
integrity
Inother words, we can state the
1. Good Research is
qualities of a good research as under
be
Systematic: It means that research is structured with specified
steps to taken in a
specified sequence in accordance
of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research with the well defined, set
does not rule out creative
thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition while arriving
at conclusions.
 Introduction

2. Good Research is Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great
value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part
to thewhole whereas deductionis the process of reasoning from some premise to
a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning
makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good Research is Empirical: It implies that researchis related basically to one
or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
4GoodResearch is Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be
veritied by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

PROBLEMs ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN INDIA

Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing

several problems.
Some of the important problems
are as follows:
1. The Lack of Scientific Training: The lack of scientific training in the
methodology of research is great impediment for researchers irnour country. There
is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a leap in the dark
thout knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of
research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even
to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the
collated materials. The consequences is obvious, viz., the research results,
quite
often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of research
methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects,
researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As
such, efforts should be made to provide short-duration intensive courses for
meeting this requirement.
[Link] of Interactions: There is insufficient interaction between the university
research departmernts on one side and business establishments, government
departments and research institutions on the other side. A great deal of primary
data of non-confidential nature remain untouched /untreated by the researchers
for want of proper contacts. Efforts should bemade to develop satisfactory liaison
among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for
developing some mechanisms of a university-industry interaction programme
so that academicians can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be
researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academicians.
3. Lack of Confidence Most of the business units in our
country do not have the
confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers will not be
misused
and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying needed information to
the
researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to
business
 Research Methodology

that it proves an impermeable barrier to

the country so much so
arranizations in
the confidence that the
researchers. Thus, there
is the
need tor generating
from a business will not be misused.
information/data obtained
another are
Analyse Overlapping: Research studies overlapping
one
4.
undertaken quite often for want of adequate information : This results in
duplicationand fritters away resources. This problem can be solved by proper
compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list ofsubjects on which and
the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward
identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which
are of immediate concern to the ind ustries.
5. Lack of Code of Conduct: There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers
and inter-university and inter-departmental rivalries are also quite common.
Hence, there is need for developing a code of conduct for researchers which, if
adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Unnecessary Delays: Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty
of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance.
This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies. All possible
eftorts should be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is
made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants
Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Inadequate Library Management: Library management and functioning is
not satisfactory at many places and much of the time and energy of researchers
are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc. rather than in tracing out
relevant material from themn.
8. Irregular supply of Government Publications: There is also the problems that
many of our libraries are not able to get copies ot old and new Acts/Rules, reports
and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in libraries
which are away in places from Delhi arnd/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts
should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental
publications to reach our libraries.
9. Lack of availability of Published Data: There is also the difficulty of timely
availability of published data from various government and other agencies doing
this jobs in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of the fact
thatthe published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage
by the concerning agencies.
10. Problem in the Process of Data Collection: There may, at times, take place the
problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data
collection and related things.
Introduction

FUNCTIONS OR USEs OF SoCIALSCIENCE

ResEARCH
SOCial research is a
time-consuming and expensive affair. A question may,
theretore, be asked -what is the utilityof all this effort, in a way
this question
seems to be some what uncalled for. It is not necessary that all our efforts shoud
be motivated
bysome material benefit.
The chief material benefits of social research are as follows:
1. Social Control:
Planning is not confined to the field for Economics alone, it has
an equal importance in the field of social organization. We can no longer remain
assive on-lookers and let the
society to take its
ownroute whether towards good
or evil. The leaders of society must guide its path for an orderly march towards
pre-planned goals. A control over society is possible ornly when we have a complete
knowledge of the organization and working of society and its various
institutions, their inter-relationship and the motivations that guide human
ehaviour. All this can be achieved only through a scientific study of
society.
2. Social Cohesion: The study of society creates better understanding between
different social groups. It reveals the underlying unity in the midst of apparent
disparity, and thus helps to create the feeling of oneness, sympathy and
understanding in place of racial prejudices. If such understanding is created, a
large part of national and international problems would be solved without much
difficulty.
3. Social Welfare: Social welfare or removal of social evils can be achieved through
social research. Social research helps us to judge the magnitude of social evils
and thus take necessary steps to remove them. A large number of legislative and
reformative measures owe their origin to the reports of social surveys. Social
research helps us to find out not only the magnitude but also the real causes of
evils and thus helps us to devise ways to hit at the root of these evils.
4. Social prediction: Social research helps us to formulate social laws which
show relationship between social facts and their causes. Once the existence of
causative factors and their magnitude is known we can predict the result.
Although, accurate prediction in majority of cases is not possible due to complexity
of social phenomena, variety of causative factors and their unstability, yet certain
broad trends can definitely be located. Statistical methods can successfully be
used for such predictions. For example, we can predict with sufficient accuracy
the of a
population town evena
or
country by calculating
the growth
rate.
prediction gives a better control over social phenomena and helps in social
The
planning.
5. Social Growth: Social research helps in the growth lines. Every society is
subjected to growth, the direction of which is influenced by its own structure,
institutions, social values and motivations etc. But it is equally affected by our
knowledge of our own society as well as other societies. Manis a rational being
 RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
 Meaning

❖Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical

problems through the application of scientific method.

❖“Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.

-Redman and Mory.

❖Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information

(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about
which we are concerned or interested.
 1.1What is research?
⚫ Research is the process of finding solutions to
a problem after a thorough study and analysis
of the situational factors
⚫ Research provides the needed information
that guides managers to make informed
decisions to successfully deal with problems
⚫ The information provided could be the result
of a careful analysis of data gathered firsthand
or of data that are already available (in the
company)
 Objectives of Research
❖The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of
scientific procedures.

❖The objectives are:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it –

Exploratory or Formulative Research.
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group – Descriptive Research.
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables –
Hypothesis-Testing Research.
 Characteristics of Research

❖Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

❖Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
❖Research demands accurate observation and description.
❖Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
❖Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
❖Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search
the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.
❖Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the
data collected and conclusions reached.
❖Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
❖Research requires courage.
❖Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
❖Research is carefully recorded and reported.
 BASIC POSTULATES
IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

☞ It relies on empirical evidence.

☞ It utilizes relevant concepts.
☞ It is committed to only objective considerations.
☞ It presupposes ethical neutrality.
☞ It results into probabilistic predictions.
☞ The methodology is made known.
☞ Aims at formulating scientific theories.
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Purpose clearly defined.

Research process detailed.
Research design thoroughly planned.
High ethical standards applied.
Limitations frankly revealed.
Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
Findings presented unambiguously.
Conclusions justified.
Researcher’s experience reflected.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• Planned
• Systematic
• Logical
• Empirical
• Replicable
• Creative
• Use of multiple methods
• Understandable
• Replicable
 NEED FOR RESEARCH

♪ EXPLORATION
♪ DESCRIBE
♪ DIAGNOSE
♪ HYPOTHESIS
♪ INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS
 PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH

Not similar to science

Uncontrollable variables
Human tendencies
Time and money
Lack of computerization
Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
Insufficient interaction between university research
departments and business establishments

Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give

information

Lack of code of conduct

 Insufficient interaction between university
research departments and business establishments

Lack of confidence on the part of business units

to give information

Lack of code of conduct

Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial

assistance
Poor library management and functioning

Difficulty of timely availability of published data.

Ignorance

Research for the sake of research-limited practical

utility though they may use high sounding
business jargon.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Descriptive vs Analytical Research

Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation

which is aimed at describing the characteristics of
individual, situation or a group (or) describing the
state of affairs as it exists at present.

Analytical Research is primarily concerned with

testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting
relationships, by analyzing the facts or information
already available.
Applied vs Fundamental Research
Applied Research or Action Research is carried out
to find solution to a real life problem requiring an
action or policy decision.

Fundamental Research which is also known as

basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of
knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.
It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is
not necessarily problem-oriented.
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research is employed for measuring
the quantity or amount of a particular phenomena by
the use of statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of

analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality of a
particular phenomenon.
Conceptual vs Empirical Research
Conceptual Research is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or
to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical Research is a data based research which

depends on experience or observation alone. It is aimed
at coming up with conclusions without due regard for
system and theory.
Exploratory research
⚫ Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of an
unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has
little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity
with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a
precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also
known as formulative research.
Some other types of research..
• One-time Research – Research confined to a single
time period.

• Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over

several time periods.

• Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research

which aims at identifying the causes of a problem,
frequency with which it occurs and the possible
solutions for it.
Experimental Research – It is designed to assess the
effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by
keeping the other variables constant or controlled.

Historical Research – It is the study of past records and

other information sources, with a view to find the
origin and development of a phenomenon and to
discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand
the present and to anticipate the future.
Research process
Step – 1: Identifying the Problem
The first and foremost task in the entire process of
scientific research is to identify a research problem.
A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to
accomplish all-important phases of the research process,
starting from setting objectives to the selection of the
research methodology.
But the core question is: whether all problems require
research.
We have countless problems around us, but all that we
encounter do not qualify as research problems, and thus,
these do not need to be researched.
Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a
research problem and a non-research problem.
 STEP-1

DEFINITION
OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
 RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?

❖ Theterm ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be

examined.

❖ Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which

a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
 HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
✵ Customer complaints
✵ Conversation with company employees
✵ Observation of inappropriate behaviour or conditions
in the firm
✵ Deviation from the business plan
✵ Success of the firm’s competitor’s
✵ Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
✵ Company records and reports.
 The first step in the research process – definition of
the problem involves two activities:

✰Identification / Selection of the Problem

✰Formulation of the Problem

 IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM

✰ This step involves identification of a few

problems and selection of one out of them, after
evaluating the alternatives against certain selection
criteria.
 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

Reading
Academic Experience
Daily Experience
Exposure to Field Situations
Consultations
Brainstorming
Research
Intuition
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

Clear and Unambiguous

Empirical
Verifiable
Interesting
Novel and Original
Availability of Guidance
ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Research Objectives are the specific components of

the research problem, that you’ll be working to
answer or complete, in order to answer the overall
research problem. - Churchill, 2001

The objectives refers to the questions to be answered

through the study. They indicate what we are trying
to get from the study or the expected results /
outcome of the study.
ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Research Objectives should be clear and achievable,

as they directly assist in answering the research
problem.
The objectives may be specified in the form of
either statements or questions.
Generally, they are written as statements, using the
word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to
determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )
D. CORRELATION
more variables.
We can find
Correlation refers to the relationship of two or
some relation-
between variables; for example, there exists
some relationship
of a son, price and demand,
between the height of a father and the height
ship and weight and so on. Correla-
and price index, yield and raintall, height
wage
which measures and analyses the degree
or ex-
tion is the statistical analysis The word
which two variables fluctuate with reference to each other.
tent to be-
indicates that there is some connection
'relationship' is of important and
tween the variables under observation.
The correlation measures the closeness
the height and the weight
of the relationship between the variables. For instance,
are correlated because both
will be increasing or decreasing.
Correlation and Causation
co-variation between two or
Correlation analysis deals with the association or
more variables and helps to determine the degree
of relationship between two
or more variables. But correlation does not
indicate a cause and effect relation
of
ship between two variables. It explains only co-variation. The high degree
correlation between two variablesmay exist due to anyone or a combination of
the pure chance, both variable influenced by some other variable and mutual
dependence.
ypes of correlation: Correlation is classified into many types, but the impor-
tant are:
1. Positive and negative, 2. Simple and multiple
3. Partial and total 4. Linear and non-lineaar
1. and
Positive negative correlation Positive
and negative correlation depend
upon the direction of change of the variables. If two variables tend to move
together in the same direction ie., an increase in the value of one variable is
accompanied by an increase in the value of the other variable; or a decrease in
the value of one variable is accompanied by adecrease in the value of the other
variable, then thecorrelationis called positive or direct correlation Heightand
weight, rainfall and yield of crops, price and supply are examples of positive
correlation.
 Research Methodologsy

increase
that an
directions so
tend to m o v etogether in opposite or i n C r e a s e
If two variables,
accompanied by a decrease
or decrease in the
values of one variable is negative or inverse
the correlation is called
then
in the value of the other variable, etc., are examples or
demand, yield of crops and price, variable
correlation. Price and
the values of the independent
the increase in variable or vice
negative correlation)Here,
with the decrease in the value
of the dependent
1s associated
is
versa.
variables, the relationship
we study only two
2. Simple and multiple:When of money and price leve,
correlation; example, quantity
described as simple correlation study
we
more than
two
demand and price, etc. But ina multiple and supply
the relationship of price, demand
variables simultaneously; example,

of a commodity. other variables

3. Partial and Total:The studyof two variables
excluding some
we study price
and demand,
Is called partial correlation. For example, into
the supply side. In total correlation,
all the facts are taken
eliminating
account) between two variables is
4. Lineár and Non-Linear If the ratio of change
between them. Consider the
uniform, then there will be linear correlation
followingg
X 5 10 15 20
Y 4 8 12 16

The ratio of change between the variables is the same. If we plot these on the
graph, we get a straightline.}
In a curvilinear or non-curvilinear correlation, the amount of change in one
variable does not bear a constant ratio of the amournt of change in the other
variables. The graph of non-linear or curvilinear relationship will form a curve,
In majority of cases, we find curvilinear relationship, which is a complicated
one, so we generally assume that the relationship between the variables under
study is linear. In social sciences, linear correlation is rare, because the exact
ness is not so perfect as in natural sciences.
Methods of Studying Correlation: The different methods of finding out the
relationship between two variables are;

A. Graphical Method
1. Scatter Diagram or Scattergram and 2. Simple Graph
B. Mathematical Method
1. Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation
2. Spearman's Rank Coefficient of Correlation
Analysis of Data and Interpretation
191
3. Coeftictent of Concurrent 1Devlation
4. Method of least squares.
[Link] Method: This is the simplest method of
there is any relationship present between two varlables finding
out whether

on a chart, known as scatter

by plotting the values
dlagram. In this method, the given data are
plotted
on a
graph paper in the form of dots. X varlables are plotted on the horizontal
axis and Y variables on the vertical axis. Thus we have the dots
and we can
know the scatter or concentration of the various points. This will show type of
correlation.

Figure
Perfect Positive Correlation Perfect Negative Correlation

Diagram 1 (r= +1) Diagram 2 (r = -1)

If the plotted points form am straight line running from the lower left-hand
corner to the upperright-hand corner, then there is a perfect positive correla-
tion (i.e. r= +1, Diagram). On the other hand, if the
points are in a straight line,
having a falling trend from the upper left-hand corner to the lower right-hand
corner, it reveals that there is a perfect negative or inverse correlation (i.e. r = -
1, Diagram 2).
If the plotted points fall in a narrow band, and the
points rising
left-hand corner to the upper right-hand corner, there
are from lower
will be a high
positive correlation between the variables (Diagram 3). If the plotted degreefall
or

a narrow band from the upper left-hand corner to the lower points
high degree or negative correlation (Diagramright-hand
cor-
ner, there will be a
ted 4). If the plot-
points lie scatter all over the diagram, there is no correlation between the
two variables (Diagram 5).
192 Research Methodology

Tigure
High degree of positive No Correlation
High degree of Negative
Correlation Correlation (r=0)

Diagram 3 Diagram 4 Diagram 5

2. Simple Graph: The values of the two variables are plotted on a graph paper.
We get two curves, one for X variables and another for Y variables. These twvo
curves reveal the direction and closeness of the two curves and also reveal
whether or not the variables are related. If both the curves move in the same
direction, ie. parallel to each other, either upward or downward, correlation is
said to be positive. On the other hand, if they move in opposite directions, then
the correlation is said to be negative.

Illustration: Draw a correlation graph from the following data:

Period Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June

Variable 1 1 18 22 20 25 20
Variable 2 30 35 43 41 51 40

Figure
Correlation Graph

70

60
Variable 1
Variable 2

Jan Feb Mar Apr Mar June

194 Research Methodology

EXY
The third formula is easy to calculate
given above, that is, r
X2yy2
and it Necessary to calculate the standard deviation of X and Y series sepa
rately.
STEPS
1. Find out the mean of the two series i.e, X and Y
2. Take deviations of the two series from x and y and denote dx and ay
3. Square the deviations and get the total of the respective squares of deviations

of x and y and denote Zdxand Zdy?

4. The converse of the theorem, i.e. r = 0, is not true, that is uncorrected vari-
ables need not necessarily be independent. Uncorrelation between the vari-
ables X and Y simply implies the absence of linear relationship between them.

They may, however, be related in some other form.

INTERPRETING THE COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATIOON

We must take at most care while interpreting the value of the coefficient of
correlation; otherwise, we get a fallacious conclusion. The interpretatiorn of the
coefficient of correlation depends very much on experience. However, we can
say or we can come to a conclusion that the following general rules are helpful
in interpreting the value of r.

1. When r=+1, it means that there is perfect positive relationship between the
variables.
[Link] r= - 1, it means that there is perfect negative relationship between the
variables.
3. When r= 0, it means that there is no relationship between the variables, i.e.
the variables are not correlated.
4. If the coefficient of correlation is + 1 or 1, it signifies that there is a high
degree of correlation (Positive or Negative) between the two variables, If r is
near to 0, i.e., 0.1,-0.1 or 0.2 there is less correlation
5. A coefficient of correlation shows only the degree of correlation between two
series and not the causes of relationship.

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION AND PROBABLE ERROR

To find out the reliability or the significance of the value of Pearsonian coeffi-
cient of correlatiorn probable error is used. According to Horace Secrist. "The
probable error of the coefficient of correlation is an amount, which, if added to
 Topic  Quantitative

8 Research
Methods
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is quantitative research method;
2. Describe the three types of descriptive research designs;
3. Differentiate the two types of survey; and
4. Apply the common statistical approaches in quantitative data
analysis.

8.1 DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Quantitative research methods are research methods dealing with numbers and
anything that is measurable in a systematic way of investigation of phenomena
and their relationships (Figure 8.1). It is used to answer questions on
relationships within measurable variables with an intention to explain, predict
and control a phenomena (Leedy 1993).
88  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Figure 8.1: Description of Quantitative Method

An entire quantitative study usually ends with confirmation or disconfirmation

of the hypothesis tested. Researchers using the quantitative method identify one
or a few variables that they intend to use in their research work and proceed with
data collection related to those variables.

In the field of ICT, quantitative methods often deal with results computation and
system analysis using a scientific approach. The objective of the quantitative
method is to develop and employ models based on mathematical approach,
hypotheses and theories pertaining to the nature of an ICT phenomenon. The
process of measurement (which we have come across in the previous topic) is the
focus of quantitative method due to its connectivity between empirical
observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. This
method is also known as iterative process where evidence is evaluated, and
hypotheses and theories are refined with some technical advances, leveraging on
statistical approach.

Quantitative method typically begins with data collection based on a hypothesis

or theory and it is followed with application of descriptive or inferential
statistics. Surveys and observations are some examples that are widely used with
statistical association. We will see different types of quantitative research
methods in the next section. For example, when a researcher is interested to
investigate the „effectiveness of expert system for managing e-commerce
application in open source environment‰, the researcher will formulate the
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  89

research question such as, „How effective is the expert system in comparison to
case-based reasoning for e-commerce module development?‰ The researcher
finds 10 software developers using e-commerce module with expert system in
open source environment and 10 software developers using case-based reasoning
e-commerce module in propietary programming language environment. The
researcher will administer the results and compute them using statistical
approach and then summarise it. Here, we can say the researcher used the
quantitative method for the work mentioned.

SELF-CHECK 8.1
(a) Define the quantitative research method in your own words.
(b) Scenario:
A researcher formulates a research question, „The effectiveness
of a network topology set up in a campus‰. He finds several
network administrators that use the network topology, and
concluded the reasons with one common conclusion without
any numerical figures/ statistics.
Does the researcher in the above scenario perform the
quantitative research method? If yes, explain why. If no,
provide the reasons why you think so.

8.2 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research methods fall under the broad heading of descriptive
research. This type of research corresponds to identifying the characteristics of an
observed phenomenon, or exploring correlations between two or more entities.
The three types of descriptive research are illustrated by Figure 8.2 below.

Figure 8.2: Types of descriptive research

90  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

8.2.1 Observation Studies

Observation studies are involved in both quantitative and qualitative research
methods. However, in quantitative methods, the focus of observation studies is
on a particular factor of behaviour and it is quantified. In this type of design, a
researcher will try to maintain objectivity in assessing the behaviour being
studied. Table 8.1 summarises some strategies used in this design.

Table 8.1: Strategies used in observation studies

No. Strategies Description

1 Using rating scale Using rating scale (e.g. Likert Scale) to
evaluate the behaviour in terms of specific
factor or reasons.
2 Defining the behaviour Defining the behaviour being studied in a
precise and solid manner so that the
behaviour is easily recognised during its
occurence.
3 Rated by two or more Having two or more individual ratings the
individuals same behaviour independently, without the
knowledge of one anotherÊs ratings.
4 Clustering the observation Divide observation period into small clusters
periods and then record whether the behaviour does
or does not occur during each cluster or
segment. Time period may be assigned with
some intervals depending on the studies
requirement.
5 Train the rater(s) Train the rater(s) of the behaviour to follow
some specific requirement until consistent
ratings are obtained during any of the
behaviour occurences.

Next, let us look at the next type of descriptive research, the correlational
research.
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  91

8.2.2 Correlational Research

Correlational research or studies examine differences of characteristics or
variables of two or more entities. A correlation exists when one variable increases
or decreases correspondingly with the other variable. A researcher will gather
data about two or more variables in a particular group. These data are numbers
that reflect measurement of the characteristics of research questions such as test
scores, baud rate, device jitter or network performance using 2 different
transmission mediums. For example, as storage becomes larger, it is easier to
manage databases. In other words, there is a correlation between storage size and
database capacity. Correlational results can be represented using various means
of visualisation. One such example would be using the scatterplot which allows
a visual inspection of the relationship between two variables. In ICT research,
scatterplot is commonly used in representing results obtained for journal or
proceedings publications. Figure 8.3 below shows an example of a scatterplot.

Figure 8.3 A scatterplot

By examining the scatterplot, we can identify or describe the homogeneity or

heterogeneity of the two variables. Secondly, we can describe the degree of
which the two variables are intercorrelated or using statistical approach known
as correlation coefficient. Finally, we can interpret these data and give them
meaning.
92  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

8.2.3 Survey Research

In ICT research, one of the common methodologies used is survey research. It is
widely used as a method due to the nature of the ICT field that involves multiple
interests of public, infrastructure and technologies associated with it.

Kerlinger (1973) defined survey research as a study on large and small

populations by selecting samples chosen from the desired population and to
discover relative incidence, distribution and interrelations.

The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large population by

surveying a sample of the population; thus we may also call it descriptive survey
or normative survey. In this method, a researcher poses a series of questions to
the respondents, summarises their responses in percentages, frequency
distribution and some other statistical approaches (Figure 8.4). Survey research
typically employs face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews or the common
approach using questionnaires (we will look into questionnaires in the next
section). Basically, information is acquired by asking respondents questions by
using interviews or questionnaires concerning the following:

What are the beliefs?

Should Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) be
adopted in seeking human capital for Human
Resource Management?

What do they know?

What was the first IT enterprise architecture that
dominated Malaysian scenario?

What have they done?

How often do you perform virus scan
What do they expect? and monitoring in your
Do you think Open Source policy organisation?
should be implemented in all
educational agencies for wider
acceptance and cost savings?

Figure 8.4: Example of questions asked in survey research

 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  93

There are two types of survey (see Figure 8.5). Normally, the type of survey
method used depends on the scope of the research work. If the research needs a
pool of opinions and practices, a cross-sectional survey would be appropriate. On
the other hand, if a researcher specifies the objective as to compare differences in
opinion and practices over time, a longitudinal survey would be the ideal
method.

Figure 8.5 : Types of survey

In cross-sectional survey, a researcher collects information from a sample drawn

from a population. It involves collecting data at one point of time. The period of
data collection can vary and it depends on the study weightage. For example:
You administer a questionnaire on broadband usage among 500 university
students for information dissemination using research network. The university
students may comprise 20-23 year old students. The students could be males and
females from different course backgrounds in a particular university. In this case,
the data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of the population at one point
of time.

In longitudinal surveys, data collection is done at different points of time to

observe the changes. Two common types of longitudinal surveys are Cohort
Studies and Panel Studies.

(a) Cohort Studies

In Cohort Studies, a researcher specifies population (e.g. IT subordinates in
an organisation dealing with security audit and penetration tests) and lists
the names of all members of this population. At each data collection point, a
researcher will select a sample of respondents from the population of IT
subordinates doing security audit and penetration testing and administer a
questionnaire. This is then repeated at another point of time. Although the
population remains the same, different respondents are sampled each time.
The researcherÊs aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or
trends that occur in the study.
94  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

(b) Panel Studies

In Panel Studies, a researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and
follow the respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes
in specific respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents
have changed.

ACTIVITY 8.1

Summarise the characteristics of quantitative research methods.

8.3 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Data collected from questionnaires or other instruments in quantitative research
methods have to be analysed and interpreted. Generally, statisical procedures are
quantitative data approaches. In this section, we will look at these common
statistical approaches and emphasis on a conceptual understanding for
quantitative data analysis.

Figure 8.6 summarises the statistical components that we will be looking at in

this section.
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  95

Figure 8.6: Summary of statistical components in quantitative data analysis

(a) Mean
Mean is also known as average. A mean is the sum of all scores divided by
the number of scores. The mean is used to measure central tendency or
centre of a score distribution generally. For example, the mean for the
following set of integers: 3, 4, 5, 7 and 6 = 5.
96  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Figure 8.7 : Mean in distributed scores

Adapted from [Link]

(b) Standard Deviation

A standard deviation tells us how close the scores are centred around the
mean. By referring to the above Figure 8.7, when the scores are bunched
together around the mean, the standard deviation is small and the bell
curve is steep. When the scores are spread away from the mean, the
standard deviation is large and the bell curve is relatively flat.

Figure 8.8: Standard deviation

To explore better what standard deviation means, we shall refer to Figure 8.8.
The mean is 20 and the standard deviation(SD) is 5. Figure 8.4 represents the
score obtained on grid test for two organisation terminals using cluster
computing with the same mean of 20.
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  97

 One standard deviation (SD= 5) from the mean in either direction on the
horizontal axis accounts for around 68% of the organisation in this group. In
other terms, 68% terminals obtained 15 and 25 optimal time.
 Two standard deviation (5+5=10) away from the mean accounts roughly 95%
of terminals. In other words, 95% terminals obtained between 10 and 30
optimal time.
 Three standard deviations ( 5+5+5=15) away from the mean accounts for
roughly 99% terminals. In other words, 99% terminals obtained 5 and 35
optimal time.

8.3.1 Testing for Significant Differences between Two

Means Using the t-Test (Independent Groups)
LetÊs say you are conducting a study to compare the effectiveness of the use of
Âservice discovery protocolÊ (independent variable) in enhancing network
appliances detection in home networks. The mean score and standard deviation
for the application test are shown in Table 8.2 and you want to test the null
hypothesis.

H0: There is no significant difference between the experimental group and the
control group in terms of enhancing network appliances detection.

To solve this, you may use the statistical approach called t-test to obtain the t-
value for independent means. In this case, independent means that two groups
consist of different subjects. The t-test gives the probability that the difference
between the two means is caused by chance. For testing the siginificance, you
will need to set a risk level called the alpha level. Similar to social science
research, in ICT research, we set the alpha level at .05. This means that the
obtained result which is significant at .05 level could occur by chance only 5
times in trial of 100.
98  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Table 8.2 Means and Standard Deviations Obtained for

the Experimental and Control Groups

N Mean Standard Deviation

Experimental group 10 13.8 2.10
Control group 10 11.4 1.96
t value = 2.65; degrees of freedom = 18; p<0.02

(a) Table 8.2 displays t-value of 2.65 obtained. If you are using statistical
software like SPSS or SAS, the probablity value is given (i.e.p<0.02). We
could also refer to the table of critical values to find out whether the t-value
is large enough to say that the difference between the groups is not likely to
have been a chance finding.
(b) We can also determine the degrees of freedom (df) for the test which is the
sum of the terminals in both groups minus 2 (i.e.n-2). By the given alpha
level, the df and the t-value, we can refer to the t-value in the table of
critical values.
(c) Refer Table 8.3. The obtained t-value(2.65) is bigger than the critical value
(2.1009) for 18 degreee of freedom (20-2=18). From this, we can conclude
that the differences between the means for two organisations is significantly
different at the 0.05 level of significance.

Table 8.3 Extract from the Table of Critical Values

df p = 0.05 p = 0.01
17 2.1098 2.8982
18 2.1009 2.8784

19 2.1009 2.8609

(d) Please note the difference is NOT SIGNIFICANT at the 0.01 level of
significance because t-value (2.65) is smaller than the critical value (2.8784)
for 18 degress of freedom.
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  99

8.3.2 Testing for Significant Differences between Two

Means Using the t-test (Dependent groups)
LetÊs say you would like to conduct a study to compare the effectiveness of the
use of Âservice discovery protocolÊ (independent variable) in enhancing network
appliances detection (dependent variable) in ONE home network (IEEE 802.11).
You gave a pretest and after testing the protocol with the IEEE 802.11 network,
you give a posttest. Here, the same group of subjects are tested 2 times. The mean
score and standard deviation obtained for network detection are in Table 8.4.
You want to test the null hypothesis.

H0: There is no significant difference between the pretest mean and the posttest
mean in terms of network appliances detection enhancement.

Table 8.4: Means and Standard Deviation Obtained for the Pretest and Posttest Scores

Mean Standard Deviation

Pretest 9.90 1.66
Posttest 10.90 0.99
N=10; t value=1.94; degrees of freedom=9; p<0.09

(a) By using the t-test for dependent groups, we can obtain value of 1.94. In
this case, dependent means that the two means are obtained from the same
groups.
(b) From Table 8.5, we can highlight that for 9 degree of freedom, the critical
value is 2.2622, which is larger than the t-value 1.94. We can conclude that
the means are NOT significantly different at the 0.05 level of significance.

Table 8.5 Extract from the Table of Critical Values of t

df p = 0.05 p = 0.01

8 2.3060 3.3554
9 2.2622 3.2498
10 2.2281 3.1693
100  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

8.3.3 Testing for Differences between Means Using

One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
In ANOVA, the mechanism is similar to t-test, although the method differs.
Whenever a researcher wants to compare more than two means, he/ she will
always opt to use One-Way Analysis of Variance or widely known as ANOVA.
For example, say you want to conduct an experiment on three types of buffering
methods for video streaming over mobile device. The means and standard
deviation obtained are shown in Table 8.6.

Table 8.6 Means and Standard Deviation for Three Types of Buffering Methods

N Mean Standard Deviation

Buffer Method 1 10 14.6 1.83
Buffer Method 2 10 15.6 2.22
Buffer Method 3 10 18.0 2.10

Table 8.7: Summary of the Buffering Method Analysis

Summary Sum of Square df Mean Squares F p

Treatment 61.066 2 30.533 7.1811 0.003
Within 114.800 27 -
TOTAL 175.866 29

In this example, a researcher used One-Way ANOVA and obtained an F-value of

7.1811 which is significant at 0.003 (Table 8.7). Therefore, the null hypothesis of
no differences between means is rejected. However, it is unsure which of the
differences contributes to the significance. To overcome this problem, another
statistical approach needs to be considered. A researcher can perform Pos Hoc
Comparisons such as Scheffe Test or Tukey Test. These tests are usually applied
after an analysis of variance.
Table 8.8: Tukey Test for the Analysis

Buffer Method 1 vs Buffer Method 1 Not significant

Buffer Method 1 vs Buffer Method 3 Significant at p<.01
Buffer Method 2 vs Buffer Method 3 Significant at p<.05
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  101

From Table 8.8, we can conclude that there is no significant difference between
the performance using Buffer Method 1 and Buffer Method 2. Buffer Method 3
performed significantly better at significance level 0.05. Buffer Method 3 also
outperformed Buffer Method 1 at the 0.01 level of significance.

8.3.4 Correlation Coefficient

To find the relationship or correlation between two variables, the approach used
is called correlation coefficient. For example, in a research work, you collected
data on Âbandwidth rateÊ and also ÂjitterÊ. You may want to find out if there is a
correlation between bandwidth rate and jitter in network performance. It is
important to note that correlation has direction and can be positive or negative.
The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient ( represented by ÂrÊ) is used
to show the strength of relationship between two variables. A coefficient can
range from r = +1.00 to -1.00. Figure 8.9 shows what the coefficient means.

Figure 8.9: Graphs showing Different Correlation Coeffiecients.

Source: [Link]
102  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Figure 8.9 shows perfect postive correlation ( r=+1) which means an increase in
variable y is also followed by an increase in variable x. The second diagram
shows a perfect negative correlation( r = -1) which means an increase in variable
y is followed by a decrease in variable x or vice-versa. The third diagram shows a
zero correlation(r=0.00) which means there is no relationship between variable y
and variable x.

SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Describe the types of survey for quantitative research
methods.
2. Identify the common statistical components for quantitative
methods.

 Quantitative methods deal with numbers and anything that is measurable in

a systematic way of investigation of phenomena.
 Three types of descriptive designs are observation, correlation and survey
research.
 Likert Scale is the common rating scale widely used in questionnaires.
 There are two types of survey: cross sectional survey and longitudinal
survey.
 Questionnaires are used widely due to their cost effectiveness and easier
management nature.
 The t-test is used for significant differences between means for independent
and dependent groups.
 ANOVA is used when comparing the means of more than two groups.
 Correlation coefficient is used to test the strength of relationship between two
variables.
 TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS  103

ANOVA Observation
Cohort studies Panel studies
Correlation Quantitative method
Cross-sectional Standard deviation
Longitudinal Survey research
Mean T-test

1. When would you use a longitudinal survey rather than a cross-

sectional survey? Discuss.
2. Discuss a situation of using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in a
research work (use an example with a research topic of your own).
3. Discuss some ethical issues you think could arise during survey
research.

Books
Bailey, K. D. (1978). Methods of social research. (3rd ed.). New York: The Free
Press.
Grinnell (1988). Social work research and evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock
Publishers.
Leedy, P. D. (1993). Practical research: planning and design. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Kerlinger, F. (1973). The structure of scientific revolution. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Kumar, R. (2005). Research methodology. SAGE Publications.
104  TOPIC 8 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Internet Resources
[Link]
[Link]
Salford University (2007). Quantitative Methods [Electronic version]
Trochim,W. K.(2007). Survey methods [Electronic version]
Measures of Dispersion

As the name suggests, the measure of dispersion shows the scatterings of the data. It tells the variation of
the data from one another and gives a clear idea about the distribution of the data. The measure of
dispersion shows the homogeneity or the heterogeneity of the distribution of the observations.

Suppose you have four datasets of the same size and the mean is also same, say, m. In all the cases the
sum of the observations will be the same. Here, the measure of central tendency is not giving a clear and
complete idea about the distribution for the four given sets.

Can we get an idea about the distribution if we get to know about the dispersion of the observations from
one another within and between the datasets? The main idea about the measure of dispersion is to get to
know how the data are spread. It shows how much the data vary from their average value.

Characteristics of Measures of Dispersion

●​ A measure of dispersion should be rigidly defined

●​ It must be easy to calculate and understand
●​ Not affected much by the fluctuations of observations
●​ Based on all observations

Classification of Measures of Dispersion

The measure of dispersion is categorized as:

(i) An absolute measure of dispersion:

●​ The measures which express the scattering of observation in terms of distances i.e., range, quartile
deviation.
●​ The measure which expresses the variations in terms of the average of deviations of observations
like mean deviation and standard deviation.

(ii) A relative measure of dispersion:

We use a relative measure of dispersion for comparing distributions of two or more data set and for unit
free comparison. They are the coefficient of range, the coefficient of mean deviation, the coefficient of
quartile deviation, the coefficient of variation, and the coefficient of standard deviation.

Range

A range is the most common and easily understandable measure of dispersion. It is the difference between
two extreme observations of the data set. If X max and X min are the two extreme observations then

Range = X max – X min

1
Merits of Range

●​ It is the simplest of the measure of dispersion

●​ Easy to calculate
●​ Easy to understand
●​ Independent of change of origin

Demerits of Range

●​ It is based on two extreme observations. Hence, get affected by fluctuations

●​ A range is not a reliable measure of dispersion
●​ Dependent on change of scale

Quartile Deviation

The quartiles divide a data set into quarters. The first quartile, (Q1) is the middle number between the
smallest number and the median of the data. The second quartile, (Q2) is the median of the data set. The
third quartile, (Q3) is the middle number between the median and the largest number.

Quartile deviation or semi-inter-quartile deviation is

Q = ½ × (Q3 – Q1)

Merits of Quartile Deviation

●​ All the drawbacks of Range are overcome by quartile deviation

●​ It uses half of the data
●​ Independent of change of origin
●​ The best measure of dispersion for open-end classification

Demerits of Quartile Deviation

●​ It ignores the 50% of the data

●​ Dependent on change of scale
●​ Not a reliable measure of dispersion

Mean Deviation

Mean deviation is the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the observations from a measure of
central tendency. If x1, x2, … , xn are the set of observation, then the mean deviation of x about the average
A (mean, median, or mode) is

Mean deviation from average A = 1⁄n [∑i|xi – A|]

2
For a grouped frequency, it is calculated as:

Mean deviation from average A = 1⁄N [∑i fi |xi – A|], N = ∑fi

Here, xi and fi are respectively the mid value and the frequency of the ith class interval.

Merits of Mean Deviation

●​ Based on all observations

●​ It provides a minimum value when the deviations are taken from the median
●​ Independent of change of origin

Demerits of Mean Deviation

●​ Not easily understandable

●​ Its calculation is not easy and time-consuming
●​ Dependent on the change of scale
●​ Ignorance of negative sign creates artificiality and becomes useless for further mathematical
treatment

Standard Deviation

A standard deviation is the positive square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations of
the given values from their arithmetic mean. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma, σ. It is also referred to
as root mean square deviation. The standard deviation is given as

σ = [(Σi (yi – ȳ) ⁄ n] ½ = [(Σ i yi 2 ⁄ n) – ȳ 2] ½

For a grouped frequency distribution, it is

σ = [(Σi fi (yi – ȳ) ⁄ N] ½ = [(Σi fi yi 2 ⁄ n) – ȳ 2] ½

The square of the standard deviation is the variance. It is also a measure of dispersion.

σ 2 = [(Σi (yi – ȳ ) / n] ½ = [(Σi yi 2 ⁄ n) – ȳ 2]

For a grouped frequency distribution, it is

σ 2 = [(Σi fi (yi – ȳ ) ⁄ N] ½ = [(Σ i fi xi 2 ⁄ n) – ȳ 2].

If instead of a mean, we choose any other arbitrary number, say A, the standard deviation becomes the
root mean deviation.

3
Variance of the Combined Series

If σ1, σ2 are two standard deviations of two series of sizes n1 and n2 with means ȳ1 and ȳ2. The variance of
the two series of sizes n1 + n2 is:

σ 2 = (1/ n1 + n2) ÷ [n1 (σ1 2 + d1 2) + n2 (σ2 2 + d2 2)]

where, d1 = ȳ 1 − ȳ , d2 = ȳ 2 − ȳ , and ȳ = (n1 ȳ 1 + n2 ȳ 2) ÷ ( n1 + n2).

Merits of Standard Deviation

●​ Squaring the deviations overcomes the drawback of ignoring signs in mean deviations
●​ Suitable for further mathematical treatment
●​ Least affected by the fluctuation of the observations
●​ The standard deviation is zero if all the observations are constant
●​ Independent of change of origin

Demerits of Standard Deviation

●​ Not easy to calculate

●​ Difficult to understand for a layman
●​ Dependent on the change of scale

Coefficient of Dispersion

Whenever we want to compare the variability of the two series which differ widely in their averages. Also,
when the unit of measurement is different. We need to calculate the coefficients of dispersion along with
the measure of dispersion. The coefficients of dispersion (C.D.) based on different measures of dispersion
are

●​ Based on Range = (X max – X min) ⁄ (X max + X min).

●​ C.D. based on quartile deviation = (Q3 – Q1) ⁄ (Q3 + Q1).
●​ Based on mean deviation = Mean deviation/average from which it is calculated.
●​ For Standard deviation = S.D. ⁄ Mean

Coefficient of Variation

100 times the coefficient of dispersion based on standard deviation is the coefficient of variation (C.V.).

C.V. = 100 × (S.D. / Mean) = (σ/ȳ ) × 100.

4
Variable s in Social Science
research

DR. BISWAJIT PAL

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF RURAL STUDIES
WEST BENGAL STATE UNIVERSITY
 What is variable?

⚫ Each person/thing we collect data on is called an

observation (in our research work these are usually
people/subjects).
⚫ • Observation (participants) possess a variety of
characteristics.
⚫ • If a characteristic of an observation (participant) is
the same for every member of the group i.e. it does
not vary, it is called a constant
⚫ • If a characteristic of an observation (participant)
differs for group members it is called a variable
 Variable

⚫ A variable is a concept or abstract idea that can be described in

measurable terms. In research, this term refers to the
measurable characteristics, qualities, traits, or attributes of a
particular individual, object, or situation being studied.
⚫ • Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For
instance, age can be considered a variable because age can
take different values for different people or for the same
person at different times. Similarly, Income can be considered
a variable because a person's Income can be assigned a value.
⚫ Variables are properties or characteristics of some event,
object, or person that can take on different values or amounts.
⚫ A variable is not only something that we measure, but also
something that we can manipulate and something we can
control for.
Variable-Classification

• variable
• Casual model
• Independent variable

• Dependent variable

• Extraneous variable
• Intervening variable

• Study design
• Active Variable
• Attribute Variable

• Unit of measurement
• Qualitative

• Quantitative
• Continuous
• Categorical or discrete
• Constant
• Dichotomous
• Polynomials
⚫ Independent variables are variables which are
manipulated or controlled or changed. It is what the
researcher studies to see its relationship or effects.
 Presumed or possible cause
⚫ Dependent variables are the outcome variables and
are the variables for which we calculate statistics.
The variable which changes on account of
independent variable is known as dependent
variable. [Link] is influenced or affected by the
independent variable
⚫ Presumed results(Effect)
Relation Between Independent and Dependent variable

Independent
•Effect Dependent Variable
Variable
⚫ Example:
Imagine that a tutor asks 100 students to complete a maths
test. The tutor wants to know why some students perform
better than others. Whilst the tutor does not know the
answer to this, she thinks that it might be because of two
reasons: (1) some students spend more time revising for
their test; and (2) some students are naturally more
intelligent than others. As such, the tutor decides to
investigate the effect of revision time and intelligence on
the test performance of the 100 students. What are the
dependent and independent variables for the study ?
 Solution

⚫ Dependent Variable: Test Mark (measured from 0 to

100)
⚫ Independent Variables: Revision time (measured in
hours) Intelligence (measured using IQ score)
 Activity

⚫ •Indentify the dependent and Independent Variables

for the following examples:
⚫ 1. A study of teacher-student classroom interaction at
different levels of schooling.
⚫ 2. A comparative study of the professional attitudes
of secondary school teachers by gender.
 Solution

1. Independent variable: Level of schooling, four

categories – primary, upper primary, secondary
and junior college. Dependent variable: Score on a
classroom observation inventory, which measures
teacher – student interaction
2. Independent variable: Gender of the teacher –
male, female. Dependent variable: Score on a
professional attitude inventory.
 Extraneous variable

⚫ It happens sometimes that after completion of the

study we wonder that the actual result is not what we
expected. In spite of taking all the possible measures
the outcome is unexpected. It is because of
extraneous variables
⚫ Variables that may affect research outcomes but have
not been adequately considered in the study are
termed as extraneous variables. Extraneous variables
exist in all studies and can affect the measurement of
study variables and the relationship among these
variables.
⚫ Extraneous variables that are not recognized until
the study is in process, or are recognized before the
study is initiated but cannot be controlled, are
referred to as confounding variables. These variables
interferes the results of the existing activity.
⚫ •Certain external variables may influence the
relationship between the research variables, even
though researcher cannot see it. These variables are
called intervening variables.
Smoking Cancer

Age
Age of initiation
Other illness
Food habit
(Extraneous variable)
 Active variable

⚫ An active variable is a variable that can be

manipulated. Active variables are also called
experimental variables. Examples of this type of
variable are teaching methods, training regimens,
and the like which can be altered to gauge there
affect on a phenomena.
Example: Service level
input quantity
 Attribute variable

⚫ An attribute variable is a variable that cannot be

manipulated. An example of an attribute variable is
gender, race, psychological condition, and or any
characteristic that is inherent or pre-programmed
and cannot be altered.
⚫ Example: Age
Gender
Religion etc
 Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

⚫ Quantitative variables are ones that exist along a

continuum that runs from low to high. Interval, and
ratio variables are quantitative.
⚫ Quantitative variables are sometimes called
continuous variables because they have a variety
(continuum) of characteristics.
⚫ Height in inches and scores on a test would be
examples of quantitative variables.
⚫ Qualitative variables do not express differences in
amount, only differences.
⚫ They are sometimes referred to as categorical
variables because they classify by categories. Ordinal,
Nominal variables are qualititative
⚫ Nominal variables such as gender, religion, or eye
color are categorical variables. Generally speaking,
categorical variables
 Continuous and Discontinuous Variables

⚫ If the values of a variable can be divided into

fractions then we call it a continuous variable.
⚫ Such a variable can take infinite number of values.
Income, temperature, age, or a test score are
examples of continuous variables.
⚫ These variables may take on values within a given
range or, in some cases, an infinite set.
⚫ Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and
which cannot be divided into fractions, is a discontinuous
variable.
⚫ Such a variable is also called as categorical variable or
classificatory variable, or discrete variable.
⚫ Some variables have only two values, reflecting the presence
or absence of a property: employed-unemployed or
male-female have two values. These variables are referred to
as dichotomous.
⚫ There are others that can take added categories such as the
demographic variables of race, religion. All such variables that
produce data that fit into categories are said to be
discrete/categorical/classificatory, since only certain values
are possible.
⚫ Dichotomous
•Gender:Male and female
•Variables Type of property: Commercial and residential
•Pregnant and non pregnant
•Alive and dead
•HIV positive and HIV negative
•Education: Literate and illiterate
⚫ Trichotomous
•Residence:Urban, semi urban and rural Variables
• Religion: Hindu, muslim, and Christianity.
⚫ Multiple Variables •Blood groups: A,B,AB and
10,[Link].[Link],22

10,12,14,16,18,19,20,20,22,24

N/4= 2.5 Mean= 17.5 Median= 18.5

3N/4 =7.5

Q1=(12+14)/2 = 13

Q3= (20+20)/2=20

Q= (Q3-Q1)/2

=(20-13)/2

=7/2

=3.5

Sk= 3 (Mean-Median)/S.D
 {(P90+P10)/2} –P50
 (Q3-2Q2+Q1)/ Q = (20-2*18.5+13)/3.5
= (20-37+13)/3.5
= -4/3.5
= -1.14
Kur=Q/ (P90-P10)
3.5 /(22-10)
= 3.5/12
=0.29 (.263> Kurtosis)
F cf x
1-3 14 2 P10 class
4-6 18 32 5 Q1 Class
7-9 20 52 8 Median class
10-12 8 60 11 Q3 Class
13-15 10 70 14 P90 class
………………………………………………
N=70

Median frequency = 70/2 = 35

Median= l + {(N/2 – Cf)/ fm} Xi
= 6.5 + {(35- 32)/20} X3
= 6.5 + {3/20}X3
 = 6.5 +.45
=6.95
Q1 class N/4 = 70/4 = 17.5
Q3 class 3N/4 = 52.5

Q1 = l + (N/4 –cf)/fm Xi
= 3.5 + (17.5-14)/18 X3
=3.5+0.58
= 4.08
Q3 = l + (3N/4 –cf)/fm Xi
=9.5 +( 52.5 -52)/8X3
=9.5+0.19
= 9.69
Q = (9.69-4.08)/2 =2.81
SKw= (Q3-2Q2+Q1)/ Q
= (9.69- 2X6.95+4.08)/ 2.81
= 0.13/2.81
= 0.046

SD = √fd2/N for population

√fd2/(N-1) for sample

Calculate Mean, Median, SD, Q1,Q3,Q, Kut, Skw of the

following group data.
Age group f Conversion to Continuous data
1-10 14
11-20 10
21-30 26
31-40 38
41-50 08
0.5-10.5 14
10.5-20.5 10
20.5-30.5 26
30.5-40.5 38
40.5-50.5 08

Central Tendency: Mean, Median and Mode

Dispersion= Range, AD, SD, QD
Percentage = the vale out of 100
Percentile= The value out of actual value range
80 out of 100 = 80%
80 out of 100( 80 ) = 100 percentile

Weight = 50,60,65,70,75,80
Marks = (50+60+65+70+75+80)/6 =
66.67 %,70 %, 80%
70/80*100 percentile
80/80*100
=100 percentile

Median= 50 percentile
Quartile = 25 %
1,2,5,8,10,10= 6
Median 5+8/2 = 6.5
Quartile

0 q1 q2 q3 100
25 50 (median) 75
Age group Frequency CF X fx
0-10 5 5 5 25
10-20 6 11 15 90 Q1 class
20-30 8 19 25 200 Median
class
30-40 10 29 35 350 Q3 class
40-50 6 35 45 270
N=35
Q2= 35/2= 17.5
Q1=35/4 = 8.75
Q3= 35X3/4 =26.25

Median= l + {(N/2 – Cf)/ fm} Xi

=20+{17.5-11)/8}x10
= 20+65/8
= 20+8.125
=28.125

Q1 = l + (N/4 –cf)/fm Xi
=10+(8.75-5)/6 X10
=10+37.5/6
=10+6.25 =16.25
Q3 = l + (3N/4 –cf)/fm Xi
=30+ (26.25-19)/10 X10
=30+7.25
=37.25
Q=37.25-16.25=21
QD = (Q3-Q1)/2 = 10.5

2,3,5,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22
N=12
Median= 12+1/2= 6.5th case
10+12/2= 11 median
5+6/2= 5.5
16+18/2 =17
Q1= 5.5
Q3= 17 Q = Q3-Q1 =17-5.5 = 12.5
QD= 12.5/2
=6.25

Frequency CF X fx d
0-10 5 5 5 25
10-20 6 11 15 90
20-30 8 19 25 200
30-40 10 29 35 350
40-50 6 35 45 270

Mean= 26.7
Median 28.125
Mode= 33.33
SD=12.98
(Q3-Median)= 37.25-28.125 = 9.125
(Median- Q1)= 28.125-16.25= 11.875

Normal distribution:
Bell shaped curve

Frequency
10

4 Frequency

0
0-10 yrs 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
years years years years

Mean=median=mode
26.7 < 28.12 < 33.33
68.8 % cases fall between – 1SD to +1 SD
26.7-12.98 = 13.72
26.7+12.98 = 39.68
24/35 X100 = 68.57%
95 % cases fall between -2SD to +2 SD
Skewness = When the distribution is not symmetrical and
Mean,Median and Mode are not coincide
Skewness two types= Positive skewness and negative
skewness
Symmetrical Positive skewness Negative
distribution skewness
Mean=Median=M Mean>Median>M Mean<Median<M
ode ode ode
Q3-Median= Q1- (Q3-Median)>( (Q3-Median)<(
Median Median- Q1) Median- Q1)
Normal Skewed to right Skewed to left

SKw= (Q3-2Q2+Q1)/ Q
= (37.25- (2X28.12)+16.25)/21
= (53.5-56.24)/21
= -0.13
Kurtosis=
2,3,4,5,6,6,6,6,6,6,8,10,12

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
Series1
1.5
1
0.5
0
2 3 4y 5y 6y 8y 10 y 12 y
years years
z
Kurtosis=
Leptokurtic= Picked
Mesokurtic= Normal distribution
Platykurtic = Flat topped
Median = 50
Q1= 25
Q3=75
P10= 10
P90= 90
NX1/10 th
NX9/10 th

P90 = l + (9N/10 –cf)/fm Xi

= 40 +(31.5-29)/6 X10
= 40+25/6
=44.16
P10 = 0+ 3.5-0/5X10
7
Kur=Q/ (P90-P10)
21/(44.16-7)
21/37.16
= 0.56

Calculate Mean, Median, Mode, AD,SD,QD, Kurtosis of

the following data set

Test marks Frequency

 Global Positioning System (GPS)
The Global Positioning System was conceived in 1960 under the
auspices of the U.S. Air Force, but in 1974 the other branches of the
U.S. military joined the effort. The first satellites were launched into
space in 1978. The System was declared fully operational in April
1995. The Global Positioning System consists of 24 satellites, that
circle the globe once every 12 hours, to provide worldwide position,
time and velocity information. GPS makes it possible to precisely
identify locations on the earth by measuring distance from the satellites. GPS allows you to
record or create locations from places on the earth and help you navigate to and from those
places. Originally the System was designed only for military applications and it wasn’t until​
the 1980’s that it was made available for civilian use also.

The three segments of GPS

The Space segment: The space segment consists of 24 satellites circling the earth​
at 12,000 miles in altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater​
area. The satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on earth can​
always receive a signal from at least four satellites at any given time. Each satellite​
transmits low radio signals with a unique code on different frequencies, allowing the​
GPS receiver to identify the signals. The main purpose of these coded signals is to​
allow for calculating travel time from the satellite to the GPS receiver. The travel time​
multiplied by the speed of light equals the distance from the satellite to the GPS​
receiver. Since these are low power signals and won’t travel through solid objects, it​
is important to have a clear view of the sky.

The Control segment: The control

segment tracks the satellites and then
provides them with corrected orbital
and time information. The control
segment consists of four unmanned
control stations and one master control
station. The four unmanned stations
receive data from the satellites and then
send that information to the master​
control station where it is corrected and
sent back to the GPS satellites.

The User segment: The user segment

consists of the users and their GPS​
receivers.
 Triangulation

Once both satellite and position are known for at least 4 satellites, the receiver can
determine a position by triangulation.

Sources of GPS Error

User mistakes: Incorrect datum and typographic ​

errors when inputting coordinates into a GPS receiver can result in errors up to​
many kilometers. Unknowingly relying on less than four satellites for determining​
position coordinates can also result in unreliable position fixes that can easily be off​
by a distance in excess of a mile. Even the human body can cause signal​
interference. Holding a GPS receiver close to the body can block some satellite​
signals and hinder accurate positioning. If a GPS receiver must be hand held without​
benefit of an external antenna, facing to the south can help to alleviate signal​
blockage caused by the body because the majority of GPS satellites are oriented​
more in the earth's southern hemisphere. A GPS receiver has no way to identify and​
correcting user mistakes.

Satellite clock errors: Caused by slight discrepancies in each satellite’s four atomic clocks.
Errors are monitored and corrected by the Master Control Station.
Orbit errors: Satellite orbit (referred to as “satellite ephemeris”) pertains to the​
altitude, position and speed of the satellite. Satellite orbits vary due to gravitational​
pull and solar pressure fluctuations. Orbit errors are also monitored and corrected by​
the Master Control Station.

Ionospheric interference: The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere from 50 to​
500 km altitude that consists primarily of ionized air. Ionospheric interference causes​
the GPS satellite radio signals to be refracted as they pass through the earth’s​
atmosphere – causing the signals to slow down or speed up. This results in​
inaccurate position measurements by GPS receivers on the ground. Even though​
the satellite signals contain correction information for ionospheric interference, it can​
only remove about half of the possible 70 nanoseconds of delay, leaving potentially​
up to a ten meter horizontal error on the ground. GPS receivers also attempt to​
“average” the amount of signal speed reduction caused by the atmosphere when​
they calculate a position fix. But this works only to a point. Fortunately, error caused​
by atmospheric conditions is usually less than 10 meters. This source of error has​
been further reduced with the aid of the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), a​
space and ground based augmentation to the GPS (to be covered later)

Tropospheric interference: The troposphere is the lower layer of the earth’s​

atmosphere (below 13 km) that experiences the changes in temperature, pressure,​
and humidity associated with weather changes. GPS errors are largely due to water​
vapor in this layer of the atmosphere. Tropospheric interference is fairly insignificant​
to GPS. Receiver noise is simply the electromagnetic field that the receiver’s internal​
electronics generate when it’s turned on. Electromagnetic fields tend to distort radio​
waves. This affects the travel time of the GPS signals before they can be processed​
by the receiver. Remote antennas can help to alleviate this noise. This error cannot​
be corrected by the GPS receiver.

Multipath interference is caused by reflected radio signals from surfaces near the​
GPS receiver that can either interfere with or be mistaken for the true signal that​
follows an uninterrupted path from a satellite. An example of multipath is the​
ghosting image that appears on a TV equipped with rabbit ear antennas. Multipath is​
difficult to detect and sometimes impossible for the user to avoid, or for the receiver​
to correct. Common sources of multipath include car bodies, buildings, power lines​
and water. When using GPS in a vehicle, placing an external antenna on the roof of​
the vehicle will eliminate most signal interference caused by the vehicle. Using a​
GPS receiver placed on the dashboard will always have some multipath​
interference.

Selective Availability (S/A) was the intentional degradation of the satellite signals​
by a time varying bias. Selective Availability is controlled by the DOD to limit​
accuracy for non - U.S. military and government users and was originally instituted​
for security reasons. In May, 2000, bowing to pressure from business and the White​
House, the Pentagon set Selective Availability to zero. The Pentagon did not turn​
S/A off, but rather merely reduced the amount of signal interference to zero meters,​
effectively eliminating intentional position errors.

Number of satellites visible: The more satellites the receiver can “see”, the better​
the accuracy. Signal reception can be blocked by buildings, terrain, electronic​
interference and sometimes dense foliage. The clearer the view to the receiver, the​
better the reception.

Satellite geometry: This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given​
time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are located at wide angles​
relative to each other. Poor geometry exists when the satellites are located in a line​
or in a tight grouping.

Application related terminologies

Waypoint (Landmark):

A waypoint is based on geographic coordinate values entered into the receiver’s​

memory. These coordinates represents either a saved receiver position fix, or user​
entered coordinates. A Waypoint will have a designated alphanumeric name, or a​
user supplied name. Once entered and saved it remains static in the GPS receiver’s​
memory until edited or deleted. To turn a position fix into a waypoint is simply a matter of
saving the receiver’s current position as a waypoint. The receiver must be locked on to enough
satellites to provide at least a two-dimensional (2D), or three-dimensional (3D) fix. The​
receiver will give the position coordinates an alpha-numeric name, or the user can​
designate a unique name. Once this happens the position fix becomes a waypoint​
with static coordinates saved in memory.​
A waypoint can also be created from coordinates derived other than by GPS.​
Coordinates on a map can become a waypoint. Coordinates radioed from person in​
a remote location to another person can also become a waypoint once they are​
programmed into a GPS receiver.

​
Route:​
Routes are just a sequence of waypoints. Once you pass one waypoint, the next​
waypoint will be navigated to. When you first activate a route, the GPS receiver will​
assume that the first leg is A to B. B is the waypoint being navigated to and A is the​
anchor point that defines the first leg of the route.
Track: Log​
A track log is the GPS units’ record of your travel or where you have been. As you​
move along your every movement is being stored. Receivers with a TracBack​
feature, will allow you to reverse your route taking you back the same way you​
originally traveled. Most GPS receivers show you your track as you move along on a​
map screen.
Data transfer from handheld GPS device to the computer using Garmin BaseCamp
software

Plotting the waypoints

GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION
SYSTEM
GIS is essentially an
information system designed GIS
to work with spatial data or
geographic data
Geographic • Relevance of location
…a system of hardware,
software and procedures
designed to support the Information
• Data
(attribute/textual/graphical)
capture, management,
manipulation, analysis,
modeling and display of System • Tools (analysis)
spatially referenced data for
solving complex planning and
management problems.
Data

Information

Knowledge & Intelligence

 DATA AND INFORMATION

Database
Management
System

Structuring
Formatting
Data Information
Conversion
Modeling

Information
System
GIS AS A SPECIAL
CLASS OF
INFORMATION SYSTEM

Focus on geospatial
data and & their
application for spatial
problem solving

Typology of Information System

COMPONENTS
OF GIS
 SPATIAL DATA
Also known as geospatial data or geographic
information it is the data or information that identifies
the geographic location of features and boundaries on
Earth, such as natural or constructed features, oceans,
and more.
Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates and
topology, and is data that can be mapped.

Spatial analysis is defined as the process of studying

entities by examining, assessing, evaluating, and
modeling spatial data features such as locations,
attributes, and their relationships that reveal the
geometric or geographic properties of data.
Spatial analysis derives insights from spatial data,
which provides a numerical representation of any
physical entity in a geographic coordinate system.
RELEVANT CONCEPTS FOR WORKING WITH GIS
Cartography & digital cartography
Map
Location- Latitude & Longitude
Projection
CARTOGRAPHY & DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY

Digital Cartography is a method of making maps on a

digital platform
Digital mapping (also called digital cartography) is
the process by which a collection of data is compiled
and formatted into a virtual image.
The primary function of this technology is to
produce maps that give accurate representations of a
particular area, detailing major road arteries and
other points of interest.
The technology also allows the calculation of
distances from one place to another.

Digital Cartography-An art of making maps digitally

([Link])
MAP
Two dimensional scale
model of part of the
surface of the earth
⚫ Scale
⚫ Symbology
⚫
CONSIDERATIONS DURING MAPMAKING
What is the purpose of the map? Who is the
audience?
What is the topic?
What are the format and scale?
How will the map be produced and reproduced?
MAP ELEMENTS
Figure, Theme, or Subject Area
Title
Legend or Key (index?)
Scale
Orientation
Border or Frame, and Neatline
Authorship
Source Statement (eg. Source: ‘Survey of Slums
in Madras Metropolitan Area’ (1986) Madras:
Madras Metropolitan Development Authority. )
Inset maps
TYPES OF MAPS

Topographic or
general purpose
maps

Thematic or
special purpose
maps
 LOCATION
CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM- PLANE RECTANGULAR, PLANE
POLAR & GEOGRAPHIC
Plane Polar
Plane rectangular
Use of an angular
Two straight lines intersecting
measurement & a linear
to define the location of “P”
measurement to fix position
Northing

Easting
GEOGRAPHIC CO-ORDINATE
SYSTEM
Takes into account the
shape of the earth
Makes use of the
network of latitude
and longitude
MAP PROJECTION
GEOREFERENCING FRAMEWORK FOR MAPPING
LOCATIONS ON EARTH
GIS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT & RURAL
PLANNING
Shortcoming of the Traditional Planning Method
⚫ Multiple data required and must be analysed together
⚫ Analysis of large amount of data
⚫ Manual map making is time consuming
⚫ Spatial data and statistical data to be drawn together

Advantages if using GIS in Rural planning and

development
⚫ Time efficiency
⚫ Accuracy
⚫ Data layers
⚫ 3D visualization, viz, digital terrain model, digital
elevation model etc
⚫ Integration of spatial and socio-economic data (eg Village
Level Information System (VLIS))
USE OF GIS IN RURAL AREAS IN INDIA BY MORD
For planning and implementation of existing projects
⚫ For better transparency (eg. Area officer’s App &National Mobile
monitoring Software in MGNREGS)
⚫ Geotagged photo for attendance check twice

MGNREGS
Satellite derived location based services and are used for planning
and monitoring of the assets created
Geo-tagging of assets created

Gram Panchayats preparing GIS based plans

PMGSY
⚫ Geo-tagging of more 7.7 lakh rural facilities like medical, educational
& markets
⚫ “Geo-Sadak” is the repository of rural roads, National & State
highways [ ]
EO_Rural_Application page 3 | NRSC Web Site
 RASTER & VECTOR DATA STRUCTURE
Raster format is generally used to save images obtained
through scanning , digital photographs or satellite images
(remote sensing data), but also to save geographic
phenomena which continuously vary in space, like
topography and temperature.
RASTER & VECTOR
VISUALIZATION OF
THE REAL WORLD
CREATING THEMES IN
LAYERS IN GIS
ENVIRONMENT FOR
ANY LOCATION
 TOPOLOGY IN GIS
Storing a map using some spatial data structure in
computer does not solve all the problems in hand. The next
issue which automatically arises is to answer the
relationship between these stored features. Researchers
have been struggling to solve spatial relation issue. This
issue could be solved efficiently only after the arrival of
Relational Database Management concept (RDBMS)during
1970s- 80s. Topology can be defined as a“mathematical
representation of spatial relationship”. It is now known to
us that the basic building blocks in Vector data structure are
point, line and polygon. Hence if we want to establish the
relationship between them, we have to either embed this at
the time of creation or immediately after creating all these
elements. The whole relationship can be defined into 3 major
relationship (ESRI, 1995) as
a) Connectivity: Node & Arc relationship to make a line
b) Containment : Arc - Arc relationship to make polygon
c) Contiguity: Direction (start & end node) to findleft - right
neighbours
 ATTRIBUTE DATA
Non spatial information, also known as attribute data, is the
descriptive data that defines spatial data. Data are raw material
from which every land information system is built. They are
gathered and assembled into records and files.

A database is a collection of data that can be shared by different

users. It is a group of records and files that are organized, so that
there is little or no redundancy. A data base consists of data in
many files, in order to be able to access data from one or more files
easily, it is necessary to have some kind of structure or
organization.
There main kinds of data base structure are commonly recognized,
termed as Hierarchical, Network and Relational.
HIERARCHICAL DATA BASE
STRUCTURE
A hierarchical file is a case of a tree structure. The tree is
composed of hierarchy of nodes; the upper-most node is
called the root. With the exception of this root, every node
is related to a node at a higher level called its parent.
 NETWORK STRUCTURE
A network structure exists when a child in a data
relationship has more than one parent. An item in such a
structure can be linked to any other item. The physical
data to support complex network structures is far more
difficult to develop than for simple structures.
THE RELATIONAL MODEL
The main data storage concept in the relational model is a table of records,
referred to as a relation,or simply a table. The records in a table contain a
fixed number of fields, which must all be different from each other, and all
records are of identical format. There is, therefore, a simple row and column
structure. In relational database terminology the rows, or records, are also
referred to as tuples, while the columns of fields are sometimes referred to as
domains. Each record of a table stores an entity or a relationship and is
uniquely identified by means of a primary key which consists of one field, or a
combination of two or more fields in the record. The need for composite keys,
consisting of more than one field, arises if no one field can be guaranteed
unique. The fields of an entity table store attributes of the entity to which the
table corresponds. Table 1 illustrates an example for Settlement.
SPATIAL REGISTRATION IN GIS
Georeferencing
aligns different spatial datasets with each other,
allowing them to be overlaid and analyzed together
spatial registration in GIS is a crucial process for
aligning different spatial datasets, enabling accurate
overlay, analysis, and spatial modeling.
Types of Registration:
Geo-referencing: Assigning geographic coordinates
(latitude and longitude) to a dataset, often using
ground control points (GCPs).
Image Registration: Aligning two or more images
by finding corresponding features and transforming
them to match.
Data Integration: Combining different spatial data
types (e.g., raster and vector) into a single geographic
context.
METHODS OF SPATIAL
REGISTRATION
Ground Control Points
(GCPs): Using known real-world
locations to establish a relationship
between the dataset's spatial
coordinates and geographic
coordinates.
Feature-based
matching: Identifying corresponding
features in different datasets and
using those correspondences to
transform one dataset into alignment
with the other.
Relational Matching: Matching
features based on their attributes and
relationships in different datasets.
IMPORTANCE OF SPATIAL REGISTRATION
Overlay and analysis: Combining different
datasets to analyze spatial relationships and
patterns.
Change detection: Tracking spatial changes
over time by comparing registered datasets from
different time periods.
Spatial modeling: Creating and manipulating
spatial models for various applications like urban
planning, environmental monitoring, and
disaster management.
DATA QUALITY AND METADATA
Data about data is metadata
If data is shared among different users, the user
needs to know
⚫ What data exists
⚫ Where it exists
⚫ In what format it exists
⚫ Whether the data meets particular quality
requirements

Quality refers to “fitness for use”

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Projection
Omits
“O” & “I”
• Along Longitudinal Zones: 360/ 6 =60 zones
• Along latitudinal bands: 20 bands
• Southern Hemisphere: 0 - 80S = 80 degree/8 =10 bands
• Northern Hemisphere: 0 - 72N = 72/8 = 9 bands
• Northern Hemisphere: 72N - 84N= 12 degree= 1 band
• Total no. of small quadrangle grids: 60x20 =1200

• Beyond the extension of the UTM, upto the two poles, 4 grids (2 grid
in each hem) are drawn on Polar Stereographic projection
S 36 DEGREE

P
8 DEGREE
499000m easting denotes its position 1000m west of central meridian.
1. Find the distance between P (5,00,337mE) and Q (5,06,887mE)
located in the same latitude zone.
2. Find the position of the place 485m north of the equator and
1436m south of the equator.
REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing
"Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of
acquiring information about the Earth's surface without
actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy and processing,
analyzing, and applying that information."

Remote sensing means acquiring information about a

phenomenon object or surface while at a distance from it. This
name is attributed to recent technology in which satellites and
spacecraft are used for collecting information about the earth's
surface. This was an outcome of developments in various
technological fields from 1960 onward.
Stages in Remote Sensing
1. Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR (sun/self- emission)
2. Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, as
well as absorption and scattering
3. Interaction of EMR with the earth's surface: reflection and emission
4. Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor
5. Sensor data output
6. Data transmission, processing and analysis

1 4
5

6
2

3
 Process of RS
⚫ Energy source or illumination

⚫ Radiation and atmosphere-

EMR interacts with the atmosphere- some disturbances occur

⚫ Interaction with the Target

⚫ Recording of energy by the sensor-

depends on what you choose to record.

⚫ Transmission, reception and processing

Satellites cannot store so much data at a time- so they send to ground stations.
processing- only general error correction (specific corrections are done by
users themselves)
⚫ Interpretation and analysis
⚫ Application
 Interaction with Atmosphere
⚫ Scattering:
⚫ The particles suspended in the atmosphere scatter the
radiation that travels through the atmosphere
⚫ As a result, gives a higher DN value
⚫ Longer wave lengths undergo lower scattering

⚫ Absorption:
⚫ Radiation gets absorbed in the atmosphere
⚫ As a result, gives lower DN value
⚫ Mainly due to ozone (absorbs UV ray), carbon-dioxide
(absorbs Far IR) , water vapour (absorbs shortwave microwave
radiation)
⚫ Near IR- very little absorption
Radiation-Target Interactions
⚫ The behaviour of transmission, absorption and reflectance changes as
wave length changes

⚫ There are two kinds of reflection:

⚫ Specular reflection: angle of incidence=angle of reflectance
⚫ If the sensor is positioned in the direction of reflectance, high DN
value
⚫ If the sensor is positioned in the other direction, near zero DN
value (not zero because due to scattering, some record does get
captured)

⚫ Diffuse reflection: reflectance takes place in all directions

⚫ Outgoing energy is equally reflected in all directions
⚫ Gives constant DN value
 Spectral Signatures
⚫ When solar radiation hits a target surface, it may
be transmitted, absorbed or reflected.

⚫ Different materials reflect and absorb differently at different wavelengths.

⚫ The reflectance spectrum of a material is a plot of the fraction of radiation

reflected as a function of the incident wavelength and serves as a unique signature
for the material.

⚫ In principle, a material can be identified from its spectral reflectance signature if

the sensing system has sufficient spectral resolution to distinguish its
spectrum from those of other materials.

⚫ This premise provides the basis for multispectral remote sensing.

⚫ The following graph shows the typical reflectance spectra of five materials: clear
water, turbid water, bare soil and two types of vegetation.
 The reflectance of clear water is generally low, but
maximum at the blue end of the spectrum and
decreases as wavelength increases.
Hence, clear water appears dark-bluish.

Turbid water has some sediment suspension which

increases the reflectance in the red end of the
spectrum, accounting for its brownish appearance.

The reflectance of bare soil generally depends on its

composition. In the example shown, the reflectance
increases monotonically with increasing
wavelength. Hence, it should appear yellowish-red
to the eye.

Vegetation has a unique spectral signature which enables it to be distinguished readily

The reflectance is low in both the blue and red regions of the spectrum, due to absorption by
chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

It has a peak at the green region which gives rise to the green colour of vegetation.

In the near infrared (NIR) region, the reflectance is much higher than that in the visible band due
to the cellular structure in the leaves.
 Band Specific Applications
⚫ Blue- maximum water penetration, mapping of shallow
water
⚫ Green- capture plant vigour
⚫ Red- discriminating vegetation types
⚫ Near IR- mapping plant health, biomass content
⚫ Reflective IR- moisture content of soil and vegetation
⚫ Thermal- night time images, soil moisture
⚫ Microwave- can penetrate cloud and very strong haze,
floral management, rainy season, cropping pattern
analysis.

The choice of spectral bands is governed by the physical properties

of the object under investigation
 Electromagnetic Waves
⚫ Electromagnetic waves are energy transported through space in the form of
periodic disturbances of electric and magnetic fields.

⚫ All electromagnetic waves travel through space at the same speed, c = 2.99792458
x 108 m/s, commonly known as the speed of light.

⚫ An electromagnetic wave is characterized by a frequency and a wavelength.

These two quantities are related to the speed of light by the equation,
speed of light = frequency x wavelength

(Wavelength units: 1 mm = 1000 µm; 1 µm = 1000 nm.)

 Electromagnetic Spectrum
⚫ Wide frequency range of electromagnetic waves constitute the Electromagnetic Spectrum.

⚫ Can be divided into several wavelength (frequency) regions

⚫ Radio Waves: 10 cm to 10 km wavelength.
⚫ Microwaves: 1 mm to 1 m wavelength.
⚫ Infrared: 0.7 to 300 µm wavelength. This region is further divided into the following bands:
⚫ Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 µm.

⚫ Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 µm. Reflected IR

⚫ Mid Wavelength Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 µm.
⚫ Long Wanelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 µm.
Thermal IR
⚫ Far Infrared (FIR): longer than 15 µm.
⚫ Visible Light: extends from about 400 nm (violet) to about 700 nm (red).
⚫ Red: 610 - 700 nm

⚫ Orange: 590 - 610 nm

⚫ Yellow: 570 - 590 nm
⚫ Green: 500 - 570 nm
⚫ Blue: 450 - 500 nm

⚫ Indigo: 430 - 450 nm

⚫ Violet: 400 - 430 nm

⚫ Ultraviolet: 3 to 400 nm
⚫ X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Types of Remote Sensing
REMOTE SENSING

Aerial Photograph Satellite Imagery

In respect to the Energy Resources In respect to the Wave Length Regions

Passive Remote Sensing Active Remote Sensing

Visible and Reflected Thermal Microwave

Infrared Remote Infrared Remote Remote Sensing
Sensing Sensing
 Images
⚫ Remote sensing images are representations of parts of the earth
surface as seen from space.

⚫ An image is a two-dimensional array of pixels.

⚫ Each pixel represents an area on the earth’s surface

⚫ Each pixel has an intensity value

(represented by a digital number) and a
location address (referenced by its row and column
numbers).
 Pixel : DN Number
⚫ The intensity value represents the measured physical quantity of
reflectance such as the:
⚫ solar radiance in a given wavelength band reflected from the
ground,
⚫ emitted infrared radiation

⚫ This value is normally the average value for the whole ground area
covered by the pixel.

⚫ A digital number (DN) is stored with a finite number of bits (binary

digits).

⚫ DN is assigned to a pixel, usually in the form of a binary integer in the

range of 0–255 (i.e. a byte).
 Pixel : Address
⚫ denoted by its row and column coordinates in the
two-dimensional image

⚫ one-to-one correspondence between the column-row

address of a pixel and the geographical coordinates i.e.
latitude and longitude

⚫ the exact geographical location of each pixel on the

ground must be derivable from its row and column
indices
 Satellite Imagery
⚫ Imagery is managed as a raster data type
composed of cells organized in a grid of
rows and columns. In addition to the map
projection

⚫ the coordinate system for a raster dataset

includes its cell size and a reference
coordinate (usually the upper left or lower
left corner of the grid).

⚫ These properties enable a raster dataset to

be described by a series of cell values
starting in the upper left row. Each cell
location can be automatically located using
the reference coordinate, the cell size, and
the number of rows and columns.
⚫ Imagery is also used to collect data in both
the visible and non-visible portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

⚫ One system is the multispectral scanner

carried in LANDSAT satellites that records
imagery in seven bands (or ranges) along
the electromagnetic spectrum.

⚫ The measures for each band are recorded

in a separate grid. The stack of seven grids
makes up a multiband image.
 Optical Remote sensing
⚫ Optical remote sensing makes use of visible, near infrared and short-wave
infrared sensors to form images of the earth's surface by detecting the solar
radiation reflected from targets on the ground.

⚫ Different materials reflect and absorb differently at different wavelengths.

⚫ Thus, the targets can be differentiated by their spectral reflectance

signatures in the remotely sensed images.

⚫ Optical remote sensing systems are classified into the following types,
depending on the number of spectral bands used in the imaging
process:
⚫ Panchromatic imaging system
⚫ Multispectral imaging system
⚫ Superspectral imaging system
⚫ Hyper spectral imaging system
 Types of Remote Sensing-I
⚫ Panchromatic imaging system:
⚫ The sensor is a single channel detector
⚫ sensitive to radiation within a broad wavelength range.
⚫ the resulting image resembles a "black-and-white" photograph taken
from space.

⚫ Multispectral imaging system:

⚫ The sensor is a multichannel detector
⚫ With a few spectral bands.
⚫ Each channel is sensitive to radiation within a narrow wavelength
band.
⚫ The resulting image contains both the brightness and colour
information of the targets being observed
 Types of Remote Sensing-II
⚫ Superspectral Imaging Systems:
⚫ A superspectral imaging sensor has many more spectral channels
(typically >10) than a multispectral sensor.
⚫ The bands have narrower bandwidths, enabling the finer spectral
characteristics of the targets to be captured by the sensor.

⚫ Hyperspectral Imaging Systems:

⚫ Also known as an "imaging spectrometer".
⚫ it acquires images in about a hundred or more contiguous spectral
bands.
⚫ The precise spectral information contained in a hyperspectral
image enables better characterisation and identification of targets.
⚫ Hyperspectral images have potential applications in such fields as
precision agriculture (e.g. monitoring the types, health, moisture
status and maturity of crops), coastal management (e.g. monitoring
of phytoplanktons, pollution, bathymetry changes)
 False Colour Composite
⚫ True Colour Composite (TCC) - Red band – Red; Green band – Green; Blue band
– Blue

⚫ False Colour Composite (FCC)- Any other combination of colours

⚫ E.g., Blue band – Red; Red band – Green; Green band – Blue
⚫ E.g., Blue band – Red; Red band – Green; NIR band – Blue

⚫ Under usual circumstances, we do not use blue wavelength band- mostly red,
green, near IR.

⚫ Why do we use near IR?

⚫ In green wave length band, separability of different objects is very low.
⚫ Red wave length bands- slightly more
⚫ Maximum separability in IR band- so we use this.

⚫ Standard False Colour Composite (FCC)

⚫ E.g., NIR band – Red; Red band – Green; Green band – Blue
⚫ In IRS: Band 4 – Red; Band 3 – Green; Band 2 – Blue
The "true-color" image shows the
The same area as a "false-color"
area in actual colors, e.g., the
image using the near infrared, red
vegetation appears in green. It
and green spectral bands mapped to
covers the full visible spectrum
RGB – this image shows vegetation
using the red, green and blue /
in a red tone, as vegetation reflects
green spectral bands of the satellite
much light in the near infrared.
mapped to the RGB color space of
the image.
 Satellites, Platforms, Orbit
⚫ Platform: in order for a sensor to collect and record energy
reflected or emitted from a target, it must reside on a stable
platform

⚫ Orbit: Path followed by a satellite

⚫ According to orbital characteristics, satellites can be classified as:

⚫ Geostationary: satellite moves at par with earth’s rotation, so
appears stationary; views same portion of the earth; used for
weather and telecommunication satellites; uses blue wave
length- penetrate clouds
Geostationary Orbit - YouTube
⚫ Sun-synchronous: moves in north-south orbit; covers most of
earth’s surface; used in resource-mapping.
Sun Synchronous Satellite Orbit - 3D - YouTube
Satellites
• Types: Natural
Geo-Stationary
e.g.- Insat Series
e.g.- Moon
Satellite

Satellites

Sun- Synchronous
Artificial Satellite
e.g.- IRS, Spot

Natural Satellite Geo-stationary Satellite Sun- Synchronous Satellite

Platforms
• The Remote Platform has a Receiver (Sensor) which
obtains information from object of interest, in form of
radiation transmitted through the atmosphere.
Types:
On the basis of their altitude above earth’s surface, Platforms can be classified as :

Ground base : mainly used for ground truthing or comparative study

Air Base : collection of aerial photographs
Space base : collection of remote sensing satellite images

Ground borne Platform Air borne Platform Space borne Platform

Sensor
Sensor is a device which can perceive the information
through the reflected or emitted light from various objects.
e.g.- Human Eye, Camera etc.

Active Sensor
Image Forming e.g.: Radar, Active
Radiometer

Types of Sensor

Passive Sensor
Non-Image e.g.:-
Forming Photographic
Camera, MSS, TM
 Sensors
Three important characteristics:

⚫ Spectral characteristics: in which wave length band is

the data captured? How many wave-length bands? What
is/are the width of the band/s?

⚫ Radiometric characteristics: the range of values the

detector can present in one particular image, maximum
range 0-255 (256 values).

⚫ Geometric characteristics: the amount of spatial detail,

also called spatial resolution.
Resolution of Sensors
• Resolution is power of discrimination

Spectral Width of Spectrum /

Resolution EMR

Spatial Minimum area of target

Resolution at a particular instant
Types of time
Resolution
Dynamic range of the
Radiometric data/ Level of Bit
Resolution
Temporal Repedivity
Resolution
 Spatial Resolution
⚫ Spatial resolution refers to the size of the smallest object that can be
resolved on the ground

⚫ It depends on Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV), which is a measure of

the ground area viewed by a single detector element in a given instant in
time

⚫ High resolution image- covers small area and

captures finer details

⚫ Low resolution image- covers larger area but

captures coarser details
 Part of a very high resolution image
A high resolution SPOT scene acquired by the IKONOS satellite
A low resolution MODIS scene with
a wide coverage, more than 1000 km- Resolution of 20 m and The effective resolution of the
A large part of Indochina, Peninsular image is 1 m. -individual trees,
Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra covers an area of 60 km by 60 vehicles, details of buildings,
km. shadows and roads can be seen.
This image was received by CRISP's
ground station on 3 March 2001. The image shown here covers an
This scene shows Singapore
and part of the Johor State of area of about 400 m by 400 m.
The intrinsic resolution of the image
was approximately 1 km. Malaysia.
Coverage of area of 10 km by 10 km
 Radiometric Resolution
⚫ Radiometric Resolution refers to the smallest change in
intensity level that can be detected by the sensing
system.
⚫ Limited by the number of discrete quantization levels used
to digitize the continuous intensity value
⚫ The finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more
sensitive it is to detecting small differences in reflected or
emitted energy
Along-track & Across-track scanner

⚫ Multispectral Scanners: Whiskbroom (Across track) &

Pushbroom (Along track) Scanners| Remote Sensing - YouTube
 GPS II
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
 How does GPS work?
• Global Positioning
System (GPS) – How does
it work?
• DGPS
• Base Station: A receiver
at a fixed, precisely
surveyed location.
• Rover: The mobile GPS
receiver collecting data.
Main Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(Constellations)
• Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are categorized into global,
regional, and augmentation systems.
• Global coverage
• GPS (US),
• GLONASS (Russia),
• Galileo (EU), and
• BeiDou (China).
• Regional systems
• Quasi-Zenith Satellite System- QZSS (Japan) and
• NavIC/ IRNSS (India),
• Augmentation Systems (boosts accuracy)
• WAAS: Wide Area Augmentation System (US).
• EGNOS: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EU).
• GAGAN: GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (India)
Navigational Satellite Timing And Ranging Global
Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS)-USA
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is officially called as Navigational
Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System (NAVSTAR
GPS), owned by United States Department of Defense (DoD).
• The current GPS constellation includes 24 satellites, each traveling in a
12-hour, circular orbit 20,200 kilometers above Earth.
• The satellites are positioned so that 6 are observable nearly 100% of
the time from any point on Earth.
GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS)-
Russia
• Navigation system of Russia
• It includes 24 active satellites and 3 spare satellites
• The satellites each travel in a circular orbit 19,140 kilometers above
the Earth.
• GLONASS gives better accuracy in places such as between huge
buildings or subways, but lacks global coverage. Therefore, when both
GPS and GLONASS are used together, higher coverage with accuracy
can be obtained.
European Galileo GNSS-EU

• Galileo is Europe’s global navigation satellite system, and has been

operational since December 2016
• the Galileo constellation will consist of 30 satellites (27 operational
and 3 spares) in three orbital planes at an altitude of 23,222
kilometers
• It will help in accurate and more reliable positioning, even in high-rise
cities and at high latitude regions.
BeiDou Navigation Satellite System- China

• BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is a Chinese satellite navigation

system,
• Consists of more than 30 satellites.
• China’s second-generation satellite navigation system.
Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System
(IRNSS)- India
• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has developed an
autonomous regional satellite navigation system called as Indian Regional
Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS).
• In 2016 India renamed IRNSS as the Navigation Indian Constellation (NavIC)
• It is a constellation of 7 satellites, and three satellites are in geostationary
orbit over the Indian Ocean.
• Besides military applications, the satellite would help in navigation, disaster
management and vehicle tracking.
• It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in
the country as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km from its
boundary, which is its primary service area.
GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
• GAGAN is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) implemented
jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI)
• To provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and
integrity required for civil aviation applications and to provide better
Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace.
 Applications of GPS
(Global Positioning System (GPS) – Remote sensing & GIS applications in environmental science)

1. Road Transport: GPS is used for commercial fleet management, navigation in private cars, freight
tracking, taxi services, public transport monitoring and emergency vehicle location.
2. Aviation: GPS finds application in real-time aircraft position, flight’s tracking, commercial aviation, for
navigation of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and aerial surveying.
3. Maritime applications include ocean and inshore navigation, dredging, port approaches, harbour
entrance and docking, Vessel Traffic Services (VTS), Automatic Identification System (AIS), hydrography,
and cargo handling.
4. Rail Transport: Rail systems throughout the world use GPS to track the movement of locomotives, rail
cars, maintenance vehicles, and wayside equipment in real time.
5. Heavy Vehicle Guidance: GPS is being used increasingly to guide and track heavy vehicles in engineering
applications such as mining and construction activities for vehicle guidance and tracking, and mine asset
management systems.
6. Farming: Farmers rely on repeat planting season after season to maximize their crop productions. By
putting GPS receivers on tractors and other agricultural equipment, farmers can map their plantations,
work in low visibility conditions such as fog and darkness and map soil sample locations.
7. Science: Scientists use GPS technology to conduct a wide range of experiments and research, tracking
animal’s movement using GPS collars or tags, studying changing landscape as well as tectonic plate
motion.
8. 8 Surveying: Surveyors are responsible for mapping and measuring features on the earth’s surface,
determining land boundaries, monitoring changes in the shape of structures or mapping the sea floor.
9 Mapping and Geophysics: Applications involve positioning survey marks, buildings and bridges,
aerial mapping, mapping seismic activity and to monitor changes in volcanoes and earthquake fault
lines.
10 Security: Security applications include tracking of vehicles, containers, other valuable cargoes and
covert tracking of suspects.
11 Telecommunication: GPS timing is important for telecommunications applications, particularly for
mobile telephone networks. GPS allows the derivation of synchronised UTC (Universal Time
Coordinated)time through resolving the signals from a number of atomic clock sources at known
locations.
12 Financial Services: Global financial systems require GPS to schedule and prioritise local and
international money transfers, settlements and trades and to provide an audit trail for financial
transactions.
13 Social Activities: Social applications include GPS-based social networking, geotagging photographs,
cross country cycling, hiking, skiing, paragliding, skydiving, geocaching, geocaching and other gaming
activities.
14 Tracking of wild life: GPS is used by scientists/ forest official etc for tracking the movement and
behaviour of wild animals.
15 Forest health and forest fire monitoring: GPS is used for insect and diseases tracking in forests as
well as for forest fire monitoring. GPS is also used to determine the location and areal extent of forest
stands
Step 1# Formulation of Research Problem:
In real terms research begins with a problem which needs solution. Such a perception on the part of the researcher,
first of all, falls within the general area of interest indicating to locate the problem either in the quest of some
intellectual pursuit or for some practical concern, such as finding out a practical solution to a problem, evaluation of a
programme in the light of new facts, gathering of relevant facts for social planning or even for policy making.

While selecting a problem for research, the Social Scientists are likely to be influenced by their own personal values
as well as the prevalent social conditions. As scientists differ with regard to their values and societies differ in respect
of their preference of different spheres, the choice of topics in social research vary widely.

In any case, formulation of a problem, arising out of theoretical situation or practical concern, is not an easy task, as it
appears to be. In real terms it is a herculean task, so much so that even a scientist of the stature of Charles Darwin has
gone to the length of saying that “Looking back, I think it was more difficult to see what the problems were than to
solve them.”

As a problem involves some difficulty experienced by the investigator, the formulation of the problem should make its
various components explicit in such a manner that it will justify the saying that “a problem well put is half solved”
R.K. Merton has identified three important questions as the three principal components involved in the process of
formulation of a problem in the field of research in soft sciences:

(i) What one wants’ to know?

(ii) Why one wants to seek answers to those particular questions? and

(iii) What may be the possible answers to the originating questions?

These three questions correspond to the components of the originating questions, the rationale and the specifying
questions respectively.

There are at least three types of originating questions:

(i) Originating questions calling for discovering a particular body of social facts,

(ii) Originating questions directing attention to the research for uniformities between classes of variables, and

(iii) Questions addressing to a variety of institutional spheres.

As regards the rationale component in the progressive formulation of a problem, the statement of reasons pertaining to
the tenability of a question is made. It also seeks to justify the answers’ contribution to theoretical or practical
concerns. The fundamental requirement of a rationale is to widen the base of scientifically consequential question and
to eschew the scientifically trivial ones. R.K Merton holds the view that “the rationale states the case for question in
the court of scientific opinion.”
The theoretical rationale attempts to justify the contribution, likely to be made by the answers to questions, in terms of
the enlargement of the scope of the prevalent ideas or concepts or theory. It may also throw light on the observed
inconsistencies in existing ideas and examine the nature of inconsistencies in terms of its spuriousness or reality. On
the other hand, the practical rationale acts as a pointer to justify as to how the answers to the research questions will
bring about certain desired practical values. However, a question raised for the practical concern may also have its
bearings on the theoretical system.

The component of specifying questions in the process of formulating a research problem aims at transforming the
originating questions into a series of observations in a particular concrete situation, necessitating collection of
empirical data, so as to seek possible answers to the originating questions in terms that satisfy the rationale fruitfully.

Step 2# Review of Related Literature:

Since an effective research is based on past knowledge, an investigator must always take advantage of the knowledge
which have been preserved or accumulated earlier. It not only helps the researcher in avoiding duplication and
formulating useful hypothesis, but also provides him with the evidence that he is familiar with what is already known
and what is still unknown and untested in the field.

Review of related literature implies the analysis of the summary of the writings of recognized authorities and the
earlier researches in the particular area. According to J.W. Best practically all human knowledge can be found in
books and libraries. Unlike other animals…man builds upon the accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past.

In the words of C.V. Good “the keys to the vast store house of published literature may open doors to sources of
significant problems and explanatory hypothesis and provide helpful orientation for definition of the problem,
background for selection of procedure and comparative data so interpretation of results.”

The essentiality of the review of literature remains in the fact that it provides the researcher with an indication of the
direction, updates information relating to researcher’s own problem, avoids the replication of the study of findings,
provides the scope for analogy and formulation of hypothesis.

The main objectives of review of related literature are:

(i) To provide theories, ideas, explanations or hypotheses, which are likely to be helpful in the formulation of research
problem?

(ii) To avoid overlapping studies,

(iii) To be a fertile source for formulating hypothesis,

(iv) To suggest the methods of data collection, procedures, to explore the sources of data and statistical techniques
appropriate to the solution of the problem,

(v) To gather comparative data and findings of earlier researches which are of use in the interpretation of data and
analysis of results?

(vi) To enable the investigator to gain expertise in his area of interest, and

(vii) To keep the researcher abreast of the most recent development in his area of activity.
In order to survey the relevant literature, the investigator should follow the following principles:

(i) At the outset, he should endeavor to obtain an overall view from the general source comprising those written
materials which are more likely to provide the meaning and nature of the concepts and variables within the theoretical
system.

(ii) Thereafter, the researcher should embark upon reviewing the empirical researches conducted in the concerned
field. At this stage we make use the Handbook of Research, International Abstracts, etc.

(iii) The researcher must review the library material in a thorough and systematic manner.

(iv) He should take care to record the references with complete bibliographic data.

The main sources of literature which are of immense use for the researcher are books and text books; periodicals;
encyclopedias; hand books, yearbooks and guides; abstracts; dissertations and theses; newspapers etc.

Step 3# Formulation of Hypotheses:

The next step in the process of research is the formulation of a tentative explanation of the problem in the form of a
proposition wherever feasible. This tentative explanation or assumption or proposition refers to a conjectural
statement of the relation between two or more variables and its tenability remains to be tested.

For formulating the hypothesis the researcher gathers information from several sources, such as existing theories,
previous reports of research concerning analogous problems, information from knowledgeable persons, researcher’s
own beliefs and insights. However, all studies do not begin with clearly formulated hypothesis.

Some are hypothesis testing studies and some others are hypothesis formulating studies. The exploratory studies are
called hypothesis formulating studies because such researches end up with formulation of hypothesis. On the contrary,
the hypothesis testing researches begin with clearly formulated hypothesis.

Notwithstanding the formulation of hypothesis at this level, the investigator needs to state the operational definitions
of the concepts in order to translate the formal definitions, conveying the nature of the phenomenon, into observable
referents.

In developing hypothesis, sociologists attempt to explain or account for the relationship between two or more
variables. A variable is a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. For
example, income, religion, occupation and gender can all be variables in a study.

If one variable is hypothesized to cause or influence another one, social scientists call the first variable as the
independent variable and the second is termed the dependent variable. A correlation exists when change in one
variable coincides with a change in the other. Correlations are an indication that causality may be present: they do not
necessarily indicate causation.

Step 4# Working Out Research Design:

After formulating the research problem, reviewing the related literature and formulating hypothesis, wherever
feasible, the researcher reaches the stage of embarking upon working out a design of study as he is guided by the
maxim that “work must be planned, if it is to lead to discoveries”. A research design is the general blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data incorporating what the researcher will have to perform from the
formulating the tentative generalizations and their operational definitions to final analysis of data.

By providing answers to various questions and acting as a standard and guidepost, it helps in carrying out research
validly, objectively, accurately and economically and thereby ensures against its failure. Research designs vary
according to the research purposes as well as from the point of view of realizable working procedure.

As regards the research purposes, broadly speaking, there are four categories:

(i) Exploration,

(ii) Description,

(iii) Diagnosis and

(iv) Experimentation.

From the view point of realizable working procedure there are four parts of research design:

(i) Sampling design, describing the different sampling methods to be used for selection of units for study,

(ii) Observational design, describing the way in which the observations are to be made,

(iii) Statistical design, dealing with the statistical techniques to be applied in the analysis and interpretation of data,
and

(iv) Operational design, dealing with the specific techniques by which the entire operation of research is to be carried
out. Thus it incorporates all the three designs mentioned above, such as the sampling, statistical and observational
designs.

Step 5# Defining the Universe of Study:

The universe of study comprises all the items or individuals under consideration in any field of inquiry. In statistical
terms, a ‘universe’ or ‘population’ refers to the aggregate of individuals or units from which a ‘sample’ is drawn and
to which the results and analysis are to apply. The researcher may distinguish between the target population and
survey population so as to clearly define the universe of study. The target population is that population for which the
results of research are required.

On the contrary, the survey population implies those items or individuals which are actually included in the sampling
frame from which the sample is drawn. However, in most sociological purposes such a distinction is not deemed to be
significant. In any case, a complete population must be very explicitly defined in terms of elements, sampling units,
extent and time.

Step 6# Determining Sampling Design:

As in practice a complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘universe’ is not possible under many circumstances, due
to the requirement of a great deal of time, money and energy; the researcher embarks upon deciding the way of a
selecting a representative sample which is popularly known as the sample design. It is a definite plan chalked out prior
to actual collection of data for obtaining a sample from the universe. The sample must be representative and adequate.
Broadly speaking there are three types of samples, such as:

(i) Probability samples

(ii) Samples based on purposive or subjective or judgement sampling, and

(iii) Samples based on mixed sampling. Probability samples are drawn from the universe according to some laws of
chance, based on scientific technique, in which each unit in the population has got some definite pre-assigned
probability of being selected in the sample.

For a sample based on purposive or subjective or judgement sampling, units are drawn deliberately or purposely
depending upon the objectives of investigation so as include only those important items which represent the universe
truly. Units selected for a mixed sample are selected partly according to some probability laws and partly according to
a fixed sampling rule which does not insist upon the use of chance. Some of the important types of sampling are:
Simple random sampling. Complex random sampling, Stratified random sampling. Cluster and area sampling,
haphazard or convenience sampling, quota sampling, judgement sampling etc.

Step 7# Administering the Tools of Data Collection:

Adequate and appropriate data are required for any standard research work. The data may differ considerably keeping
in view the financial aspect, time and other resources available to the researcher. The researcher, while collecting data
takes into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available
time and the desired degree of accuracy. That apart his own ability and experience also counts much in the collection
of required data.

Secondary data are collected from books, journals, newspaper, reports of the earlier studies etc., whereas primary data
are to be collected either through experiment or through survey. For examining the facts through hypothesis, the
researcher, takes recourse to experiment for observing some quantitative measurements.

But, for the purpose of a survey, data may be gathered by observation, personal interviews, telephonic interviews,
mailing of questionnaires and through schedules. For any particular survey he may administer one or more than one of
the above methods, depending on the nature of study.

Step 8# Analysis of Data:

After completion of the collection of data, the researcher embarks upon the analysis of these data. This involves a
number of operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation. Thereafter statistical inferences are drawn.

All these operations are very closely related to one another. At the outset, the researcher classifies the raw data into
some usable categories on the basis of some purposes. At this stage coding operations is also done so as to transform
the categories of data into symbols in order to make them amenable to be tabulated and counted. The researcher may
also induct editing in order to improve the quality of data for coding.

Thereafter, in the post-coding stage, the classified data are put in the form of tables as a part of technical procedure
either manually or through mechanical devices such as computers. Computers are generally used in large enquiries for
the dual purposes of saving time and for making the study of large number of variables possible. While analyzing
data, the researcher applies various well defined statistical formulae for the computation of percentages, coefficients,
tests of significance, so as to determine with what validity data can indicate any conclusion.

Step 9# Testing of Hypotheses:

Sociological studies do not always generate data that confirm the original hypothesis. In many instance, a hypothesis
is refuted and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. In behavioural sciences it is not possible to test several
hypotheses directly. The social scientist can only test the research hypotheses by establishing some kind of sample of
behaviour in order to observe it directly.

On the basis of these observable incidents, he determines whether or not those are consistent with the hypothesis so as
to deduce their logical consequences. Thus an indirect test of the proposed hypothesis can only be made.

The research hypothesis is the prediction derived from the theory under test. It provides simply an inconclusive test.
Actually a stronger test of logic is formed when a null hypothesis is rejected. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis of no
difference, the rejection of which results in the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is
the operational statement of the researcher’s research hypothesis. In behavioural science research the rejection or
acceptance of a null hypothesis is based on 0.05 or .01 alpha level of significance.

The statisticians have developed various tests like chi-square test, t-test, F-test for the purpose of testing the
hypothesis. In the studies, where no hypotheses are there to begin with, the generalizations will serve the basis of
formulation of hypothesis which may be tested by subsequent researcher in future.

Step 10# Generalization and Interpretation:

After the hypothesis is tested and found valid, it becomes possible on the part of researcher to reach the stage of
generalization, which may be construed to be the real value of research. This is only possible in case of
hypothesis-testing studies. But in the hypothesis formulating studies where the researcher has no hypothesis to begin
with, he may seek to interpret his findings. In other words, he may seek to explain the findings of his research on the
basis of some theoretical framework, which may probably raise some new questions for further researches.

Step 11# Reporting the Research:

Research report is the end product of a research activity which gives an account of a long journey on the path of
finding a new knowledge or modified knowledge. Writing a research report is a technical task as it requires not only
skill on the part of the researcher but also considerable effort, patience and penetration, an overall approach to the
problem, data and analysis along with grasp over language and greater objectivity, all springing from considerable
thought.

The purposes of research report are:

i. transmission of knowledge;

ii. presentation of findings,

iii. examining the validity of the generalization, and

iv. Inspiration for further research.

The outline of a report comprises:

(i) The preliminaries incorporating the title page, foreword or preface, acknowledgements; list of tables, charts or
illustrations; and table of contents.

(ii) Contents of the reports which covers the introductory part of research reports which should not only contain
purpose of the study, statement of the problem, hypothesis and operational definition of the concepts but also should
contain a description of the agency, personnel and other aspects of research.

This part of research also covers:

(a) The study design;

(b) The universe and the organisation of sampling procedures;

(c) Methods, tools and techniques employed for collection of data as well as analysis and presentation of findings;

(iii) The reference material consisting, the bibliography, appendices, glossary of terms and index.