1.

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

Pressure Gradient Force per unit mass in the x-direction is given by:

PGF_x = (F_x / m) = - (1 / ρ) * (∂P / ∂x)

Problem 1
Two weather stations separated by a horizontal distance of 200 km along the x-axis recorded a pressure
difference of 4 hPa (1 hPa = 100 Pa). If the air density is 1.2 kg m ⁻³, calculate the Pressure Gradient Force per
unit mass.

Solution
Given that:
• Pressure difference (∂P) = 4 hPa = 4 × 100 Pa = 400 Pa
• Distance (∂x) = 200 km = 200,000 m
• Air density (ρ) = 1.2 kg m⁻³

We know that the equation of PGF_x is given by:

F_x / m = - (1 / ρ) * (∂P / ∂x)

The magnitude of the PGF_x per unit mass is:

|PGF_x| = | - (1 / ρ) * (∂P / ∂x) |
= (1 / ρ) * (∂P / ∂x)
= (1 / 1.2) * (400 / 200,000) m s⁻²
= 1.67 × 10⁻³ m s⁻²

Answer: Hence, the PGF_x per unit mass is 1.67 × 10⁻³ m s⁻².

2. Coriolis Force
Coriolis Force per unit mass is given by:

CF = 2 * Ω × U => CF = 2 * Ω * u * (R_bar / R)

Where:
• Ω = magnitude of the angular velocity of the Earth = 7.292 × 10 ⁻⁵ rad s ⁻¹
• u = the eastward speed relative to the ground
• R_bar / R = unit vector

Problem 2
An air parcel is moving zonally (along the x-axis) with a wind speed of 20 m s⁻¹. Calculate the magnitude of the
Coriolis force per unit mass acting on this air parcel. (Take Earth's angular velocity Ω = 7.292 × 10 ⁻⁵ rad s ⁻¹).

Solution
Given that:
• Wind speed (u) = 20 m s⁻¹
• Earth's angular velocity (Ω) = 7.292 × 10⁻⁵ rad s⁻¹
We know that Coriolis force per unit mass is:
CF = 2 * Ω * u
= 2 × (7.292 × 10⁻⁵) × 20 m s⁻²
= 2.9168 × 10⁻³ m s⁻²

Answer: The magnitude of the Coriolis force per unit mass is 2.9168 × 10 ⁻³ m s ⁻².

3. Gravitational Force Variation

Gravity variation with height (z) above the Earth's surface is given by:

g* = g_0* / (1 + z / a)²

Problem 3
Calculate the true gravitational acceleration (g*) at a satellite's altitude of 400 km above the Earth's surface.
Assume the gravitational acceleration at mean sea level is g_0* = 9.81 m s⁻² and the mean radius of Earth is a
= 6440 km.

Solution
Given that:
• Altitude (z) = 400 km = 400,000 m
• Earth's radius (a) = 6440 km = 6,440,000 m
• Gravity at sea level (g_0*) = 9.81 m s⁻²

We know that the true gravity g* is:

g* = g_0* / (1 + z / a)²
= 9.81 / (1 + 400,000 / 6,440,000)² m s⁻²
= 9.81 / (1 + 0.0621118)²
= 9.81 / (1.0621118)²
= 9.81 / 1.1280815
= 8.69618 m s⁻² ≈ 8.696 m s⁻²

Answer: Hence, the true gravitational acceleration of the satellite is 8.696 m s ⁻².

4. Hydrostatic Equation & Scale Height

Hydrostatic equation is given by:

dP / dz = - ρ * g

Question 4
Prove that for a homogeneous atmosphere, the pressure p(z) decreases linearly with height z and find the
height z where the pressure becomes exactly half of the sea level pressure (P_0).

Solution
We know the hydrostatic equation is:
dP / dz = - ρ * g ------- (1)

For a homogeneous atmosphere, the air density ρ is constant. Let ρ = ρ_0.

Now, integrating equation (1) from sea level (z = 0, P = P_0) to a height z (P = P(z)), we get:
∫_{P_0}^{P(z)} dP = - ρ_0 * g * ∫_0^z dz
[P]_{P_0}^{P(z)} = - ρ_0 * g * [z]_0^z
P(z) - P_0 = - ρ_0 * g * z
P(z) = P_0 - ρ_0 * g * z ------- (2)

This equation proves that the pressure decreases linearly with height z.

Again, to find the height z where P(z) = P_0 / 2:

From equation (2):
P_0 / 2 = P_0 - ρ_0 * g * z
ρ_0 * g * z = P_0 - P_0 / 2
ρ_0 * g * z = P_0 / 2
z = P_0 / (2 * ρ_0 * g)

Since the scale height H is defined as H = P_0 / (ρ_0 * g), we can write:
z=H/2

Hence, the pressure decreases linearly with height and it becomes half of the surface pressure at a
height of H/2 (half of the scale height).

5. Viscous Stress in a Linear Velocity Profile

Problem 5
A shallow layer of air of thickness l has a linear velocity profile given by u(z) = U_0 * (z / l). Derive the
expression for the shearing stress (τ_zx) and show whether it depends on the height z within the layer.

Solution
Given velocity profile:
u(z) = U_0 * (z / l) ------- (1)

From Newton's law of viscosity, the shearing stress is given by:

T_zx (τ_zx) = μ * (∂u / ∂z) ------- (2)

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to z:

∂u / ∂z = ∂/∂z [ U_0 * (z / l) ] = (U_0 / l) * (∂z / ∂z) = U_0 / l

Now, substitute ∂u / ∂z back into the shearing stress formula (2):

τ_zx = μ * (U_0 / l)

This is the required expression for the shearing stress.

Conclusion: Since the variables μ, U_0, and l are constants, the shearing stress does not depend on
the height z within this layer.
6. Total Differentiation and Velocity in a Rotating System

Question
An aircraft at the equator (where the Earth's rotation vector has a magnitude of Ω = 7.292 × 10 -5 rad/s) is flying
due east at a constant relative speed of 250 m/s at a distance of 6370 km from the Earth's center. Calculate
the absolute velocity vector Ua using the formula Ua = U + Ω × r, and find its total magnitude.

Solution
Given Data:
● Earth's angular velocity: Ω = 7.292 × 10-5 rad/s (directed along the Earth's axis, k̂ )
● Relative velocity of the aircraft: U = 250 m/s (directed East, ĵ)
● Radius vector from the center: r = 6.370 × 106 m (directed outward at the equator, î) Step 1: Calculate
the velocity component due to Earth's rotation (Ω × r) The cross product representing the rotational
velocity contribution is:
Ω × r = (Ω k̂ ) × (r î) = Ω r ĵ

Substituting the scalar values:

Ω r = (7.292 × 10-5 rad/s) × (6.370 × 106 m) ≈ 464.5 m/s Therefore, the

rotational velocity vector is 464.5 ĵ m/s. Step 2: Calculate the
Absolute Velocity (Ua) Using the vector relation from the
conservation laws:

Ua = U + Ω × r
Ua = 250 ĵ + 464.5 ĵ = 714.5 ĵ m/s Answer:
The absolute velocity vector is 714.5 ĵ m/s directed due East, and its absolute magnitude is 714.5 m/s.

7. Continuity Equation for Incompressible Fluid Flow

Question
A three-dimensional wind field in the atmosphere has the following horizontal velocity components:
u = 2x2 - xy v = 2yz - y2
Assuming the atmospheric boundary layer behaves as an incompressible fluid (∇ · U = 0), determine the
missing vertical velocity component w, given the boundary condition that w = 0 at the surface (z = 0).

Solution
For an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation in Cartesian coordinate form simplifies to:

(∂u / ∂x) + (∂v / ∂y) + (∂w / ∂z) = 0

Step 1: Compute the partial derivatives of the horizontal fields Differentiating u with respect
to x:
∂u / ∂x = ∂/∂x (2x2 - xy) = 4x - y

Differentiating v with respect to y:

∂v / ∂y = ∂/∂y (2yz - y2) = 2z - 2y

Step 2: Substitute into the divergence-free continuity equation

(4x - y) + (2z - 2y) + (∂w / ∂z) = 0

4x - 3y + 2z + (∂w / ∂z) = 0

∂w / ∂z = 3y - 4x - 2z

Step 3: Integrate with respect to z to solve for w w = ∫ (3y - 4x -

2z) dz
w = (3y - 4x)z - z2 + C(x,y)

Applying the boundary condition w = 0 at z = 0 yields the integration constant C(x,y) = 0.

Answer:
The vertical velocity component satisfying the continuity equation is w = (3y - 4x)z - z2.

8. Scale Analysis and Non-Dimensional Frameworks

Question
A typical mid-latitude synoptic weather system has a characteristic horizontal velocity scale U = 10 m/s, a
horizontal length scale L = 106 m (1000 km), and operates with a Coriolis parameter 2Ω = 10-4 s-1. The
kinematic viscosity of air is ν = 1.5 × 10-5 m2/s.

1. Calculate the Rossby Number (Ro).

2. Calculate the Reynolds Number (Re).
3. Evaluate whether the geostrophic approximation is valid for this system.

Solution
Step 1: Calculate the Rossby Number (Ro)
The Rossby number measures the ratio of non-linear inertial forces to the Coriolis force: Ro = U / (2ΩL)

Substituting the scales:

Ro = 10 / (10-4 × 106) = 10 / 100 = 0.1

Step 2: Calculate the Reynolds Number (Re)
The Reynolds number measures the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces:

Re = LU / ν

Substituting the scales:

Re = (106 × 10) / (1.5 × 10-5) = 107 / (1.5 × 10-5) ≈ 6.67 × 1011

Step 3: Geostrophic Approximation Analysis
Scale analysis dictates the following conclusions based on these non-dimensional limits:

1. Since Ro = 0.1 ≤ 1, the Coriolis force heavily dominates over the non-linear acceleration terms.
2. Since Re >> 1, the molecular viscous forces are entirely negligible.
Consequently, the horizontal momentum equation reduces to a strict balance between the pressure gradient
force and the Coriolis force.

Answer:
The calculated values are Ro = 0.1 and Re = 6.67 × 1011. Because Ro ≤ 1 and Re >> 1, the geostrophic
approximation is fully valid.

9. Incompressible Fluid Flow (Velocity Fields)

Question
A 3D wind field in the atmosphere is given by the velocity vector components:

u = 2x2 - xy , v = 2yz - y2
Assuming the atmospheric flow behaves as an incompressible fluid (∇ · U = 0), determine the missing velocity
component w in the vertical z-direction, given that w = 0 at the surface (z = 0).

Solution
For an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation in Cartesian form is:

∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y + ∂w/∂z = 0

Step 1: Find the partial derivatives ● Differentiating u
with respect to x: ∂u/∂x = ∂/∂x (2x2 - xy) = 4x - y ●
Differentiating v with respect to y:

∂v/∂y = ∂/∂y (2yz - y2) = 2z - 2y

Step 2: Substitute into the continuity equation

(4x - y) + (2z - 2y) + ∂w/∂z = 0

4x - 3y + 2z + ∂w/∂z = 0

∂w/∂z = 3y - 4x - 2z

Step 3: Integrate with respect to z

w = ∫ (3y - 4x - 2z) dz w = (3y - 4x)z - z2 +
C(x,y)

Since w = 0 at z = 0, the integration constant C(x,y) = 0.

Answer:
The vertical velocity component is w = (3y - 4x)z - z2

10. Compressible Fluid Flow (Density Variation)

Question
In a compressible atmospheric layer, the horizontal velocity components are:

u = ax v = -by

where a and b are positive constants. The atmospheric density ρ varies with time t according to the relation ρ =
ρ0e-kt, where ρ0 and k are constants. Using the continuity equation:
∂ρ/∂t + ∇ · (ρU) = 0
Find the expression for the vertical velocity component w as a function of z, assuming w = 0 at the ground
surface (z = 0).

Solution
The compressible continuity equation expanded in Cartesian coordinates is:

∂ρ/∂t + ∂(ρu)/∂x + ∂(ρv)/∂y + ∂(ρw)/∂z = 0 Step 1: Simplify using the given density field
Since the density ρ = ρ0e-kt depends only on time t (it is spatially uniform in x and y), we can pull ρ out of the
spatial derivatives:

∂ρ/∂t + ρ(∂u/∂x) + ρ(∂v/∂y) + ∂(ρw)/∂z = 0

Step 2: Calculate individual derivative terms

● ∂ρ/∂t = ∂/∂t (ρ0e-kt) = -k ρ0e-kt = -kρ
● ∂u/∂x = ∂/∂x (ax) = a
● ∂v/∂y = ∂/∂y (-by) = -b

Step 3: Substitute the terms back into the equation

-kρ + ρ(a) + ρ(-b) + ∂(ρw)/∂z = 0 ρ(a - b - k) +
∂(ρw)/∂z = 0

∂(ρw)/∂z = ρ(k + b - a)

Step 4: Integrate with respect to z to find w

ρw = ∫ ρ(k + b - a) dz ρw = ρ(k + b - a)z
+C

Since w = 0 at z = 0, the constant C = 0: ρw = ρ(k + b -

a)z Dividing both sides by ρ

Answer:
The vertical velocity component is w = (k + b - a)z