Quantum Tunneling in Astrophysics -
Module 1 Problem Set
Rishi Banerjee Ghosh
20th October 2025
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Problem 1: Thermal Energy of Protons
The Sun’s core temperature is T 1.5 × 107 K.
(a) Compute the average thermal energy of a proton using Ethermal = kB T
in Joules and eV.
(b) Compare Ethermal to the Coulomb barrier VC ≈ 1 MeV and comment on
why classical fusion is unlikely.
(a) Average thermal energy of a proton: Ethermal = kB T
Given, T = 1.5 × 107 K, kB T = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
Ethermal = 1.38 × 10−23 × 1.5 × 107 J = 2.07 × 10−16 J
1eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
Ethermal = 2.07 × 10−16 /1.602 × 10−19 eV = 1.29 × 103 eV
Ethermal = 2.07 × 10−16 J = 1.29 × 103 eV
(b)
Ethermal 1.29keV 103 eV
= ≈ 6 = 10−3
VC 1M eV 10 eV
Classical fusion requires two protons to have enough energy to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion between them (referred to as the Coulomb Barrier).
However, a comparison between the average thermal energy of a proton at
the core temperature of the sun and the typical Coulomb Barrier for two
protons shows that they differ by the order of 10−3 .
As the barrier is roughly 1000 times greater than the typical energy of a
proton, classical fusion is unlikely in this scenario.
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Problem 2: Coulomb Barrier
(a) Write the Coulomb potential between two protons:
e2
V (r) =
4πϵ0 r
(b) Compute V(r) at r = 1 fm.
(c) Sketch V(r) vs r from r = 0.5 fm to 10 fm and mark the proton thermal
energy on the graph.
(a) Given basic constants: e = 1.602 × 10−19 C, ϵ0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
Coulomb potential between two protons:
e2 (1.602 × 10−19 )2 2.307 × 10−28
V (r) = = = J
4πϵ0 r 4πr × 8.85 × 10−12 r
(b)1f m = 10−15 m
2.307 × 10−28
V (r) = = 2.307 × 10−13 J = 1.44 × 106 eV = 1.44 M eV
10−15
(c)
Figure 1: Sketch of V(r) vs r, from r = 0.5 to 10 fm
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Problem 3: Proton-Proton Chain Energetics
The pp-chain reactions are:
p + p → d + e + + ve
d + p → 3 He + γ
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He + 3 He → 4 He + 2p
(a) Calculate the total energy released per complete cycle (≈ 26.7 M eV ) in
Joules.
(b) Compare this energy to to the thermal energy of a single proton. Com-
ment on the amplification factor.
(c) Explain qualitatively why, despite the high barrier height, fusion occurs
in stars (hint: quantum tunneling).
(a) 1eV = 1.602 × 10−19
T otal energy released per complete cycle = 26.7×106 ×1.602×10−19 = 4.28×10−12 J
(b) Amplification Factor:
Energy released per cycle of a pp chain 26.7 × 106 eV
= = 2.07 × 104
T hermal energy of a single proton 1.29 × 103 eV
The amplification factor shows that the energy released per cycle is much
greater (≈ 2000 times) than the thermal energy of a single proton in the
Sun’s core. The ’excess’ energy liberated is due to the difference in mass
between the reactants and product. It demonstrates the efficiency of nuclear
fusion in terms of energy production.
(c) Qualitative explanation of fusion in stars:
Through the classical view, the thermal energy of protons is insufficient to
overcome the Coulomb barrier - thus fusion through the pp-chain should not
occur in stars. Nevertheless, it does occur. The explanation of why fusion
occurs regardless of the energy deficiency is based in quantum tunneling. It
allows a small probability for the proton to cross the barrier by ’tunneling’
through. The probability of this event is low, but it happens frequently
enough in the Sun to continue the production of energy.
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Problem 4: Classical Forbidden Region
(a) Using the Coulomb potential, determine the classical turning point rc for
a proton with thermal energy Ethermal .
(b) Sketch the classically forbidden region for proton-proton fusion. Label the
barrier height, thermal energy, and turning point.
(c) Explain qualitatively what quantum tunneling allows protons to do in this
forbidden region.
(a) Classical turning point:
V (rc ) = Ethermal
2.307 × 10−28
= 2.07 × 10−16
rc
rc = 1.12 × 10−12 m = 1.12 × 103 f m
(b)
Figure 2: Sketch of classically forbidden region for p-p fusion
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(c) The Coulomb barrier lies at ≈1 fm, and the turning point is calculated
to be ≈ 103 fm. So this region is classically ’forbidden’. Quantum tunneling
allows the protons to overcome this forbidden region. They penetrate through
the barrier despite the deficiency in energy.