Heat Transfer

Chapter Three
One-Dimensional Steady-
State Conduction
By
Dr. Amer Khalil Ababneh
3.1 The plane Wall
For one-dimensional conduction in a plane wall, temperature is
only a function of the x-coordinate, and heat is transferred
exclusively in this direction. In Figure 3.1a, a plane wall separates
two fluids at different temperatures. Heat transfer occurs by
convection from the hot fluid at T1 to one surface of the wall at Ts,1,
then by conduction through the wall, and by convection from the
other surface of the wall at Ts,2 to the cold fluid at T2.

FIGURE 3.1 Heat transfer through a

plane wall. (a) Temperature distribution.
(b) Equivalent thermal circuit.
3.1.1 Temperature Distribution
From the energy equation, steady, one-dim, and no heat
generation

Note, the implication of equation (3.1) is that heat flux is constant.

If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is assumed to be
constant, the equation may be integrated twice,

Application of the boundary conditions,

Yields, the temperature distribution to be

Observe that the temperature distribution is linear.

The rate of heat transfer is calculated from Fourier’s law,

Also, the heat flux,

The solution outlined above is called the standard approach

where temperature is obtained first then the rate of heat is
obtained.
3.1.2 Thermal Resistance
Observe from Equation 3.4, that an analogy exists between the
diffusion of heat and electrical charge. Just as an electrical
resistance is associated with the passage of electricity, a
thermal resistance is associated with the conduction of heat.
Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the
corresponding transfer rate, it follows that the thermal
resistance for conduction in a plane wall is

Note the analogy with electricity (from Ohm’s law),

A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by
convection at a surface. From Newton’s law of cooling,

The thermal resistance for convection is then

The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection
surface conditions is shown in Figure 3.1b. Since qx is constant
throughout the network, it follows that
In terms of the overall temperature difference, T∞,1 , T ∞,2 and the
total thermal resistance, Rtot, the heat transfer rate may also be
expressed as

where the total thermal resistance (since heat is flowing in series

in the individual resistances),

A thermal resistance for radiation may be defined by reference to

Equation 1.8:

where hr is the radiative heat transfer coefficient as defined in

chapter one.
3.1.3 The Composite Wall
Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex
systems, such as composite walls. The walls may involve any
number of series and parallel thermal resistances due to layers of
different materials. Consider the series composite wall of Figure
3.2. The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system may
be expressed as

FIGURE 3.2 Equivalent thermal

circuit for a series composite wall.
where T ∞,1 T ∞,4 is the overall temperature difference, and the
summation includes all thermal resistances. Hence

Alternatively, the heat transfer for each element is written as,

With composite systems, it is often convenient to work with an

overall heat transfer coefficient U,

It is evident from equations (3.16) and (3.17)

Or, in general,

Composite walls may also be in series–parallel configurations, such as

seen in Figure 3.3. Although the heat flow is now multidimensional, it is
often reasonable to assume one-dimensional conditions. Subject to this
assumption, two different thermal circuits may be used. For case (a) it is
presumed that surfaces normal to the x-direction are isothermal,
whereas for case (b) it is assumed that surfaces parallel to the x-
direction are adiabatic. Different results are obtained for Rtot, and the
corresponding values of q the actual heat transfer rate.

FIGURE 3.3 Equivalent thermal circuits

for a series–parallel composite wall.
3.1.4 Contact Resistance
It is important to recognize that, in composite systems, the
temperature drop across the interface between materials may be
appreciable. This temperature change is attributed to what is
known as the thermal contact resistance, Rt,c. The effect is
shown in Figure 3.4, and for a unit area of the interface, the
resistance is defined as

The existence of a finite contact resistance is due principally to

surface roughness effects. Contact spots are interspersed with
gaps that are, in most instances, air filled. Heat transfer is
therefore due to conduction across the actual contact area and to
conduction and/or radiation across the gaps.
The contact resistance may be viewed as two parallel resistances: that
due to: 1) the contact spots; and 2) the gaps. The contact area is
typically small, and, especially for rough surfaces, the major contribution
to the resistance is made by the gaps.

For solids whose thermal conductivities exceed that of the interfacial

fluid, the contact resistance may be reduced by increasing the area of
the contact spots. Such an increase may be affected by increasing the
joint pressure and/or by reducing the roughness of the mating
surfaces.

FIGURE 3.4 Temperature drop

due to thermal contact
resistance.
Although theories have been developed for predicting R”t,c, the
most reliable results are those that have been obtained
experimentally. The effect of loading on metallic interfaces can be
seen in Table 3.1a, which presents an approximate range of
thermal resistances under vacuum conditions. The effect of
interfacial fluid on the thermal resistance of an aluminum interface
is shown in Table 3.1b.
Contrary to the results of Table 3.1, many applications involve
contact between dissimilar solids and/or a wide range of possible
interstitial (filler) materials (Table 3.2). Any interstitial substance
that fills the gap between contacting surfaces and whose thermal
conductivity exceeds that of air will decrease the contact
resistance. Two classes of materials that are well suited for this
purpose are soft metals and thermal greases.
FIGURE 3.5 Thermal modelling of saturated
porous material.
Example 3.1
Consider the human body with ambient conditions as shown in the
schematic. Snow and wet suit is made from nanostructured silica
aerogel with thermal conductivity 0.014 W/m-K and emissivity 0.95
is worn to reduce heat loss rate. What is the thickness of the
aerogel suit necessary to reduce the heat loss rate to 100 W if
body is surrounded by: a) air; b) water? What are the resulting
temperatures? The average surface area for human body is
1.8m2. Note, the typical metabolic heat of generation is 100 W.

Schematic
Example 3.1
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional heat transfer by conduction through the
skin/fat and insulation layers.
3. Contact resistance is negligible.
4. Thermal conductivities are uniform.
5. Radiation exchange between the skin surface and the
surroundings is between a small surface and a large enclosure at
the air temperature.
6. Liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation.
7. Solar irradiation is negligible.
8. Body is completely immersed in water in part b.

Solution
The thermal resistance
circuit is shown
The overall thermal resistance in both cases is simply computed
as,

For the case of air, it is computed as follow,

Observing that heat transferred from surface is by convection and

by radiation which is equal to 100 W,
For air:
qc + qr = 100
A(hr + hc)(Ts – Tsur) = 100; where A=1.8 m2
This is an iterative problem to determine hr and Ts, since

Using iteration, the radiation heat transfer coefficient is found 5.09 W/m2-K,
and consequently, the insulation thickness Lins is 4.2 mm,
Summary of iteration is shown on next slide
The area of the
surfaces is the same,
hence one can deal
with heat fluxes.

Problem
Schematic
The sketch of the panel is depicted next.
The layout of the panel and its interaction with the environment
The thermal resistance for the panel is given below. Observe that
bottom surface of the panel (substrate) is assumed to be adiabatic,
thus ultimately, do not affect the results and remains at uniform
temperature.

SOLUTION
The thermal circuit is drawn below.
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions; 2. One-dimensional heat transfer;
3. Constant properties; 4. Negligible thermal contact resistances;
5. Negligible temperature differences within the thin silicon layer
OPTIONAL
Schematic
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional heat transfer.
3. The heated and sensing islands are isothermal.
4. Radiation exchange between the surfaces and the surroundings is negligible.
5. Negligible convection losses.
6. Ohmic heating in the
platinum signal lines is
negligible.
7. Constant properties.
8. Negligible contact resistance
between the nanotube and the
islands.
Solution
The thermal resistance is shown in the figure below. Energy that
is dissipated at the heated island is transferred to the silicon
nitride block through the support beams of the heated island, the
carbon nanotube, and subsequently through the support beams of
the sensing island. Therefore, the thermal circuit may be
constructed as follows where each
supporting beam provides a
thermal resistance Rt,sup that is
composed of a resistance due
to the silicon nitride (sn) in
parallel with a resistance due to
the platinum (pt) line.
The cross-sectional area for the material in the support beam are,

The cross-sectional of the carbon nanotube is

The thermal resistance of each support is

The combined heat loss through the sensing island supports is

It follows that:
It follows that Th

For the tube connecting the islands,

It follows that,
3.2 Variable Area Heat Conduction Analysis
A different analysis approach may be followed. Consider the
conduction in the system of Figure 3.6, we recognize that, for
steady-state conditions with no heat generation and no heat
loss from the sides, the heat transfer rate qx is constant
independent of x, even if the area varies with position A(x) and the
thermal conductivity varies with temperature k(T). Moreover, the
temperature distribution may be two-dimensional, we will assume
a one-dimensional distribution in x.
The alternative approach starts with Fourier’s law,
dT
q x = A( x)k ( x)
dx
Dividing by the area and then integrating yields, and remembering
that qx is constant,

Note that, if the area A is uniform and k is independent of

temperature, Equation 3.26 reduces to
1. Derive an expression for the temperature
distribution T(x) in symbolic form, assuming
one-dimensional conditions. Sketch the
temperature distribution.
2. Calculate the heat rate qx through the cone.

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction in the x direction.
3. No internal heat generation and sides are
insulated.
4. Constant properties.

Properties: Table A.2, pyroceram at (500 K):

k = 3.46 W/m K.
From Fourier’s law,

where the area

Substituting for the expression for area and separating variables,

Integrating between x1 and x2 and recognizing that the heat flow

rate is constant,

leading to

Solving for the temperature,

The value for heat flow rate q is calculated from solving for T2,

hence,

Therefore, the temperature distribution,

The profile of the temperature is

shown in the figure.

The heat flow rate is computed as,

3.3 Radial Systems
Cylindrical and spherical systems often experience temperature
gradients only in the radial direction and may therefore be treated
as one-dimensional.
The standard approach will be applied to cylindrical systems while
the alternative approach is applied to spherical systems.

3.3.1 The Cylinder

A common example is the hollow cylinder whose inner and outer
surfaces are exposed to fluids at different temperatures (Figure
3.7). For steady-state conditions with no heat generation,
the appropriate form of the heat equation, Equation 2.26, is

The heat flow rate is computed from the Fourier’s law for the case
with constant conductivity,
where A=2rL is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Since Equation 3.28 dictates that the quantity kr(dT/dr) is
independent of r, it follows that the conduction heat transfer rate qr
(not the heat flux q”r ) is a constant in the radial direction.
Can you prove it?
Solving for temperature from equation (3.29) leads to (for qr = c),

Applying boundary conditions:

Upon substitution,

The temperature distribution for cylindrical systems is logarithmic

unlike for the plane wall which is linear.
Repeating equation (3.31)

Using eqn (3.29) to obtain the heat transfer rate and taking the
derivative of eqn (3.31), it follows that

It follows from equation (3.32) that the thermal resistance

Eqn (3.33) is to be remembered for cylinders.

For the case of composite cylindrical wall, see figure, the heat rate flow qr can
be evaluated as follow,
In terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient, the heat flow rate
is expressed as,

If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A1 =2r1L, Equations

3.34 and 3.35 may be equated to yield

The choice for A1 is arbitrary, since

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional heat transfer in the radial (cylindrical)
direction.
3. Negligible tube wall thermal resistance.
4. Constant properties for insulation.
5. Negligible radiation exchange between insulation outer
surface and surroundings.
The heat transfer rate per unit length,

leading to, thus,

The thermal resistances corresponding to the prescribed
insulation thicknesses may be calculated and are plotted as seen
below. Note, that maximum heat flow occurs at minimum thermal
resistance.

Example 3.6
3.3.2 The Sphere (OPTIONAL)
Applying the alternative method for analyzing conduction in a
hollow sphere, Figure 3.9. For the differential control volume the
energy conservation requires that qr = qr+dr for steady-state, one-
dimensional conditions with no heat generation. The appropriate
form of Fourier’s law is,

where A=4r2 is the normal

area to the radial direction.
Since qr is constant, then by the
alternative method,
Assuming constant conductivity, lead to

Thus, the thermal resistance in this case,

3.5 Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation
A common thermal energy generation process involves the
conversion from electrical to thermal energy in a current-carrying
medium (which is called Ohmic, or resistance, or Joule heating).
The rate at which energy is generated by passing a current I
through a medium of electrical resistance Re is

If this heat is generated uniformly within the medium volume, then

the volumetric heat generation (W/m3) is,

As before, first the plane wall is considered then the radial

systems
3.5.1 The Plane Wall
Consider the plane wall of Figure 3.10a, in which there is uniform
energy generation per unit volume and the surfaces are
maintained at Ts,1 and Ts,2. For constant thermal conductivity k, the
appropriate form of the heat equation, Equation 2.22, is

The general solution for this equation is,

Using the boundary conditions

In which the temperature distribution is found to be,

Observe how the temperature (also the heat flux) is dependent on x

For the above case, the
profile becomes
symmetrical.
For the symmetrical case, the maximum temperature exists at the
midplane (x=0)

Thus, the temperature distribution may be expressed using T(x=0)

as, (To at x=0)

It is important to note that at the plane of symmetry in Figure

3.10b, the temperature gradient is zero, (dT/dx)x=0. Accordingly,
there is no heat transfer across this plane, and it may be
represented by the adiabatic surface shown in Figure 3.10c. One
implication of this result is that Equation 3.47 also applies to plane
walls that are perfectly insulated on one side (x=0) and
maintained at a fixed temperature Ts on the other side (x=L).
A common problem is that fluid at T∞ is flowing along the surface,
to determine the surface temperature, one would apply energy
balance at the surface, such energy conducted equals convection,
specifically,

Differentiating eqn (3.47) and solving for Ts yields the following

Two observations about eqn (3.51):

1- the eqn may be obtained by performing energy balance on the
entire wall
2- eqn (3.51) may be used to eliminate Ts from eqn (3.47) and
obtain a temperature depending directly on T∞.
Problem sketch.
Solution
The temperature distribution in material A is obtained from eqn
(3.47), which is parabolic. For material B, the temperature
distribution is linear (steady, no heat generation, constant
properties and one-dimensional). In the water, the temperature
drops quickly. This temperature variation is shown in the sketch
shown.

To determine the temperature T1 at

the interface between A and B, one
way is to apply energy balance for
material B. The heat generated in A
is conducted to B and eventually to
the water, thus,

where, A is the area normal to the

x-direction
Solving for T2, leads to

From equation (3.47), the temperature at the insulated surface is

found as follows,

The inter-surface temperature T1 is obtained from the following

thermal circuit,

which gives for T1,

with the thermal resistances being,

Solving for T1,

Also, for To,

Note, for h=200m the temperature reaches 440 C which may lead to failure.
3.5.2 Radial Systems
For the case of a cylinder under steady state, one dimensional
with heat generation, eqn (2.26) reduces to

Separating variables and assuming that heat generation is

uniform throughout, and integratign leads to,

Integrating again leads to,

To evaluate the constants, apply the

boundary conditions
Note the first boundary condition is based on the symmetry of the
temperature distribution while the second is based on holding the
outer surface temperature constant. Hence, C1=0, while C2,

The temperature distribution becomes,

The following non-dimensional form is obtained when dividing the

above equation by the temperature value at the center line (To).

To obtain the surface temperature, apply the energy conservation

to either outer surface or the entire cylinder, choosing the later
leads,

which results into,

3.5.3 Tabulated Solutions (OPTIONAL)
Appendix C provides a convenient and systematic procedure for
treating the different combinations of surface conditions that may
be applied to one-dimensional planar and radial (cylindrical and
spherical) geometries with uniform thermal energy generation.
3. Determine the heat removal
rate per unit length of tube.
4. If the coolant is available at
a temperature 𝑇∞ , obtain an
expression for the convection
coefficient that would have to
be maintained at the inner
surface to allow for operation
at prescribed values of Ts,2 and
the heat flow rate. .
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional radial conduction.
3. Constant properties.
4. Uniform volumetric heat generation.
5. Outer surface adiabatic.
The general equation that govern the temperature follows from the
differential equation (2.26), as before,

Once again, as before, its general solution is,

Note at the outer surface the temperature gradient is zero since

the adiabatic condition. Thus, specifying the boundary conditions
at outer surface,

and
Applying the first boundary conditions leads to

Applying the second boundary condition,

Solving for the constants, lead to

and

Therefore, the solution becomes,

3) The rate of heat leaving the cylinder may be obtained by

evaluating energy balance at r1, by equating energy generation
and conduction. The conduction is,
From the temperature solution,

The heat generated is,

The energy generated is convected out under steady state, which

is evident from the above two equations, thus the heat convected
from the inner wall,

4) To find the heat transfer coefficient, apply the energy balance at

the inner surface,

Substituting,

Solving for h,
3.6 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces (Fins)
The term extended surface is commonly used to depict an
important special case involving heat transfer by conduction within
a solid and heat transfer by convection (and/or radiation) from the
boundaries of the solid. Until now, we have considered heat
transfer from the boundaries of a solid to be in the same direction
as heat transfer by conduction in the solid. In contrast, for an
extended surface, the direction of heat transfer from the
boundaries is perpendicular to the principal direction of heat
transfer in the solid, see figure.

FIGURE 3.13 Use of fins to

enhance heat transfer
FIGURE 3.14 Schematic of typical finned-tube heat exchangers.
A straight fin is any extended surface that is attached to a plane
wall. An annular fin is one that is circumferentially attached to a
cylinder, and its cross section varies with radius from the wall of
the cylinder. a pin fin, or spine, is an extended surface of
circular cross section.

FIGURE 3.15 Fin configurations. (a) Straight fin of uniform cross section. (b)
Straight fin of nonuniform cross section. (c) Annular fin. (d) Pin fin.
3.6.1 A General Conduction Analysis
As engineers, we are primarily interested in knowing the extent to
which particular extended surfaces or fin arrangements could
improve heat transfer from a surface to the surrounding fluid.

FIGURE 3.16 Energy balance for an

extended surface.
Performing energy balance on the differential control volume of
Figure 3.16 with no heat of generation and steady-state
conditions,

This result provides a general form of the energy equation for an

extended surface. Its solution for appropriate boundary conditions
provides the temperature distribution, which may be used with
Equation 3.62 to calculate the conduction rate at any x.
 3.6.2 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
To solve Equation 3.66, it is necessary to be more specific about
the geometry. Consider uniform cross section (Figure 3.17).
Each fin is attached to a base surface of temperature T(0)=Tb and
extends into a fluid of temperature T∞.
For these fins, note that
Ac=constant, and As=Px,
note that dAc/dx=0, and
dAs/dx=P, thus, eqn (3.66)
leads

Defining excess temperature,

FIGURE 3.17 Straight fins of uniform cross

section. (a) Rectangular fin. (b) Pin fin.
 where,

The general solution for this linear second ODE is

The boundary conditions include at x=0,

The second condition, specified at the fin tip (x=L), may

correspond to one of four different physical situations. The first
condition, Case A, considers convection heat transfer from the
fin tip. Applying an energy balance to a control surface about this
tip (Figure 3.18), we obtain

or,
Applying these two boundary conditions lead to

and

After some manipulation, the temperature solution becomes,

FIGURE 3.18 Conduction and convection in a fin

How to compute heat transfer from fin; two ways,
1- Evaluate heat transfer from base
2- Evaluate heat transfer from entire surface area

The second case condition: Case B

This corresponds to negligible heat transfer from tip thus

The solution becomes

The heat transfer becomes

Case C. A Prescribed temperature at the end of the fin (L) =L.
For this case, the temperature solution and heat transfer are,

Case D. A very long fin where the end temperature of the fin
approaches ambient, (L)=0. The temperature solution and heat
transfer becomes,
Summary for fins with constant cross section. Shown
temperature distribution and heat dissipated from the fin.
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction along the
rod.
3. Constant properties.
4. Negligible radiation exchange with
surroundings.
5. Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
6. Infinitely long rod.
Solution
The temperature
i distribution and heat transfer for this case (case
D) is

Alternatively,
Substituting the values for h and D in the temperature solution and
plotting the results as shown for the three materials.

The heat transfer is

For copper:
Case B

Case D
3.6.3 Fin Performance
One method of measuring the fin performance is to define fin
effectiveness f as the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat
transfer rate that would exist without the fin. Therefore

Apparently f should be as large as possible, and in general, the

use of fins may rarely be justified unless f ≥ 2.
The fin effectiveness may be obtained, for example for the case
with constant cross section and assuming that h is the same
whether with fin or without, for the infinite fin (case D) the
effectiveness becomes,

Three observations may be learned from the above equation. The

effectiveness obviously increases with conductivity; thus, copper
and aluminum are most common with aluminum more because of
cost and weight. Also, fins are to be used when h is low, which is
more associated with gases and natural convection. Also, the ratio
of perimeter to cross-section area must be large, thus leading to
thin fins,
Remember the use of fins is justified when f ≥ 2.
Eqn 3.87 provides an upper limit for the efficiency as L
approaches infinity. It will be shown in a following example that
99% of the maximum possible heat transfer from the fin can be
obtained with mL=2.65.
The effectiveness expresses the ratio of thermal resistances.
Treating the difference between the base and fluid temperatures
as the driving potential, a fin resistance may be defined as

Dividing the above by the expression below, which represents the

resistance of the base surface as if it were exposed,

Leads to the following expression,

Hence the fin effectiveness may be interpreted as a ratio of

thermal resistances, and to increase f it is necessary to reduce
the conduction/convection resistance of the fin.
Another approach for evaluating the fin performance is the fin
efficiency which is defined as the ratio of heat transfer from the fin
to that assuming that as if the entire fin was at the base
temperature,

where Af is the surface area of the fin. For a straight fin of uniform
cross section and an adiabatic tip,

Note that f approaches its maximum value of one and minimum

value of zero, as L approaches 0 and ∞.
Because of the relatively cumbersome expression for heat
transfer from a straight rectangular fin with an active tip, it has
been shown that approximate, yet accurate, predictions may be
obtained by using the adiabatic tip result, with a corrected fin
length of the form Lc=L+ (t/2) for a rectangular fin and Lc=L +(D/4)
for a pin fin [14]. The correction is based on assuming
equivalence between heat transfer from the actual fin with tip
convection and heat transfer from a longer, hypothetical fin with
an adiabatic tip. Hence, with tip convection, the fin heat rate may
be approximated as

And the efficiency is,

If the width w of a rectangular fin is much larger than its thickness
t, the perimeter may be approximated as P =2w, and

Multiplying numerator and denominator by Lc 1/2 and introducing a

corrected fin profile area, Ap=Lct, it follows that

Figures 3.19 and 3.20, show the efficiency of a fin with tip
convection may be represented as a function of Lc3/2(h/kAp)1/2.
3.6.4 Fins of Nonuniform Cross-Sectional Area
Analysis of fin thermal behavior for this case becomes more involved. The area
through which heat is conducted is not constant and hence the second term in
Eqn (3.66) must be retained. The analytical solution become more tedious since
they require modified Bessel functions. Table 3.5 summarizes the efficiency for
several fin geometries with adiabatic tip. For sharp ended, heat transfer from the
tip is vanishingly small (i.e., adiabatic).
The thermal resistance of fins is computed as follow,
1
𝑅𝑡,𝑓 = (3.102)
ℎ𝐴𝑓 𝜂𝑓

In actual implementation of fins, two parameters arise: 1) is the material cost;

and 2) the increase in heat transfer. A factor of value for comparison between
different geometries is 𝑞Τ∀, where ∀ is the material used for fins. It was noted
that for parabolic profile the value for 𝑞Τ∀ is maximum; however, it is not much
larger than for rectangular profile. Hence, parabolic profile are seldom used
because of the added cost.

3.6.5 Overall Surface Efficiency

In contrast to the fin efficiency 𝜂𝑓 , which characterizes the performance of a
single fin, the overall surface efficiency 𝜂𝑜 characterizes an array of fins
combined with the base surface to which they are attached. Representative
arrays are shown in Figure 3.21, where S designates the fin pitch. In each case
the overall efficiency is defined as
3.6.5 Overall Surface Efficiency
In each case the overall efficiency is defined as
𝑞𝑡
𝜂𝑜 = (3.103)
ℎ𝐴𝑡 𝜃𝑏
where 𝐴𝑡 is the total surface area that participate in heat convection which
includes the areas of the fins and the exposed surfaces of the base.

FIGURE 3.21 Representative fin arrays. (a)

Rectangular fins. (b) Annular fins.
If there are 𝑁 fins with each having an area of 𝐴𝑓 and the exposed areas at the
base is 𝐴𝑏 , one can write for the heat flow rate,
𝑞𝑡 = 𝑁𝜂𝑓 ℎ𝐴𝑓 𝜃𝑏 + ℎ𝐴𝑏 𝜃𝑏 (3.104)

where the heat transfer coefficient ℎ is assumed to be the same for both the
base, while 𝜂𝑓 is the efficiency for a single fin. Equation (3.104) may be
rearranged in a convenient way as,

𝑞𝑡 = ℎ 𝑁𝜂𝑓 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐴𝑡 − 𝑁𝐴𝑓 𝜃𝑏 (3.105a)

𝑁𝐴𝑓
𝑞𝑡 = ℎ𝐴𝑡 1 − 1 − 𝜂𝑓 𝜃𝑏 (3.105b)
𝐴𝑡

Using the definition in Eqn (3.103),

𝑁𝐴𝑓
𝜂𝑜 = 1 − 1 − 𝜂𝑓 (3.106)
𝐴𝑡
It follows that, the thermal resistance associated with group of fins is,
𝜃𝑏 1
𝑅𝑡,𝑜 = = (3.107)
𝑞𝑡 𝜂𝑜 ℎ𝐴𝑡
Figure 3.22 illustrates the thermal circuits corresponding to the parallel paths
and their representation in terms of an effective resistance.

FIGURE 3.22 Fin array and thermal circuit. (a) Fins that are integral with
the base. (b) Fins that are attached to the base.
In Figure 3.22a, the fins are integrated with the base plate or are machined from
the same block of material; whereas in Figure 3.22b the fins are attached to the
base plate using materials like adhesive. Therefore, in Figure 3.22b, there is in
addition a contact thermal resistance, hence the thermal resistance in this case is
𝜃𝑏 1
𝑅𝑡,𝑜 𝑐 = = (3.108)
𝑞𝑡 𝜂𝑜 𝑐 ℎ𝐴𝑡

It can be shown that,

𝑁𝐴𝑓 𝜂𝑓
𝜂𝑜 𝑐 =1− 1− (3.109)
𝐴𝑡 𝐶1

"
𝑅𝑡,𝑐
Where 𝐶1 = 1 + 𝜂𝑓 ℎ𝐴𝑓 ൗ𝐴𝑐,𝑏 .
"
Note that, in manufacturing care must be taken to ensure that 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 ≪ 𝑅𝑡,𝑓 .
EXAMPLE 3.10
The engine cylinder of a motorcycle is constructed from 2024-T6 aluminum alloy and is of height
H =0.15 m and outside diameter D=50 mm. Under typical operating conditions
the outer surface of the cylinder is at a temperature of 500 K and is exposed to ambient air at 300
K, with a convection coefficient of 50 W/m2-K. Annular fins are integrally cast with the cylinder
to increase heat transfer to the surroundings. Consider five such fins, which are of thickness t=6
mm, length L =20 mm, and equally spaced. What is the increase in heat transfer due to use of the
fins?
SOLUTION
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions and constant properties.
2. One-dimensional radial conduction in fins.
With fins, the heat transfer from Eqn (3.105b),
𝑁𝐴𝑓
𝑞𝑡 = ℎ𝐴𝑡 1 − 1 − 𝜂𝑓 𝜃𝑏
𝐴𝑡
2
𝑟2𝑐 = 𝑟2 + 𝑡Τ2 = 0.045 + 0.006Τ2 = 0.048 𝑚, 𝐴𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑁 𝑟2𝑐 − 𝑟12 = 2𝜋 ×
5 0.0482 − 0.0252 = 0.0525 𝑚2, 𝐴𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐻 − 𝑁𝑡 = 2𝜋0.025ሺ0.15 −
5 × 0.006ሻ = 0.0188 𝑚2, 𝑟2𝑐Τ𝑟1 = 1.92, 𝐿𝑐 = 𝐿 + 𝑡Τ2 = 0.020 + 0.003 =
0.023 𝑚, 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐿𝑐 𝑡 = 0.023 × 0.006 = 1.38 × 10−4 𝑚2. Therefore,
1Τ
3Τ 2
𝐿𝑐 2 ℎ = 0.15, thus the efficiency 𝜂𝑓 ≈ 0.95 (Figure 3.20).
ൗ𝑘𝐴𝑝
EXAMPLE 3.10
The engine cylinder of a motorcycle is constructed from 2024-T6 aluminum alloy and is of heigh
The heat transfer with fins is
0.025
𝑞𝑡 = 50 × 0.0525 + 0.0188 1 − × 0.05 × 200 = 690 𝑊.
0.713

The heat transfer without fins is,

𝑞𝑡 = 50 × 2𝜋 × 0.025 × 0.15 × 200 = 235.6 𝑊.