Heat Transfer
Chapter 1
Introduction
Dr. Amer Khalil Ababneh
1.0 What is Heat Transfer?
In Thermodynamics, it was noted that energy is transferred between sytem and its
surounding through work and heat. The amount of transfer was analyzed based on end
states without specifying the nature of the transfer or the time is takes for the transfer.
The objective of this course is to extend thermodynamic analysis by examining the
modes (ways) of heat transfer and the development of relations to calculate heat
transfer rates.
Heat transfer is an energy transfer that results due to temperature difference. If energy
is transferred due to other than temperature difference, then it is work.
There are three ways (modes) that heat is transferred from a system (body)
1- by conduction; 2) by convection; 3) by radiation
These modes are depicted in Figure 1.1. Conduction, under temperature difference,
occurs in material when its constuent particles are fixed in space. Convection occurs
under temperature difference between moving fluid and stationary surfaces. Radiation
occurs between bodies when are at different temperatures through electomagnatic
waves (termed thermal radiation) and not through a medium.
Heat conduction is governed by
Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥” = −𝑘 𝑑𝑥 (1.1)
where 𝑘 is the material thermal conductivity
and the minus sign indicates that heat flows
from high to lower temperatures.
Figure 1.1. Modes of heat transfer.
Example 1.1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a
thermal conductivity of 1.7 𝑊/𝑚 − 𝐾. Measurements made during steady-state operation
reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 𝐾 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively.
What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5𝑚 × 1.2𝑚 on a side? Assume
temperature distribution is linear.
SOLUTION
The wall is solid and is under steady state situation, hence the heat is transfered by
condution, see sketch. Assume thermal conductivity is constant, thus
” 𝑇1 −𝑇2 1400−1150
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑘 = 1.7 × = 2833.3 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐿 0.15
The heat transferred in the x-direction is
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥” × 𝐴 = 2833.3 × 0.5 × 1.2 = 1700 𝑊
Note that 𝑞𝑥 is a scalar which is the heat transfer
rate where as 𝑞𝑥” is a vector which the heat flux.
1.1.2 Convection
This occurs when fluid moves adjacent to a surface with the fluid and the surface are at
different temperaratures. Here, the heat transfer is due molecular random motion and to
the bulk motion of the fluid. Convection heat transfer is referred to when heat transfer is
due to both molecular motion and bulk motion of the fluid. Advection is used when heat
transfer is due to bulk motion of the fluid.
Fluid flow adjacent to surfaces gives rise to velocity (hydrodynamic) boundary layer
where the fluid velocity at the wall 𝑦 = 0 is zero and increases to the free stream
velocity 𝑢∞ as 𝑦 increases away from the wall, Fig 1.3.
Therefore, the contribution of molecular motion and the
bulk motion varies with distance from the wall 𝑦. In fact,
at the wall 𝑦 = 0 heat transfer is only due to
molecular motion. Thus, molecular and bulk motions
are important in the region near the wall. As heat is
pickup by the fluid, it is eventually convected away by
the fluid bulk motion from the surface in the case when
the surface temperature is hotter than the fluid. Figure 1.3. Velocity and thermal boundary
layer near a surfcae.
Similarly, a thermal boundary layer develops in the region near the surface under
temperature difference as that of the velocity boundary layer. The size of the thermal
boundary layer can be larger, smaller or the same size as the velocity boundary layer.
The convection is called “forced convction” if an external source such as a fan or a
pump that causes the fluid bulk motion while it is called “free convection” if no external
source is present and the bulk motion of the fluid is caused by bouyancy which is due to
temperature variation in the fluid. Fig 1.4 a,b shows examples for forced and free
convections from an electronic circuit board.
In some cases, both forced convection and free convection can contribute to heat
transfer which in this case is called “combined
convection”.
Convection heat transfer is governed by
Newton’s cooling law,
𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ (1.2)
Figure 1.4a, b. Forced and free convection heat
transfer.
Determination of ℎ is a key in convection heat transfer problems. Typical values of the
convection heat transfer coefficients are given in Table 1.1.
If 𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇∞ the heat transfer is positive, meaning heat is leaving surface or (gained by the
fluid) and if 𝑇𝑠 < 𝑇∞ the heat transfer is negative, which means heat is leaving fluid and
going into the surface.
For real surfaces, the emissive radiative power is computed from
𝐸 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 (1.5)
where 𝜀 is a surface property called emissivity, with values 0 ≤ 𝜀 ≤ 1.0. Emissivity
depends on the surface material and finish. Observe that for solid bodies thermal energy
is emitted from the surface which originate from within the bodies.
The incident radiation on a surface can originate from any source such as the sun or
any another surface. The incident radiation is designated the leter 𝐺 and will be referred
to as “irradiation”. For real surfaces, a portion of the irradiation is absorbed and is a
quantified by the absorptivity ∝ with values 0 ≤∝≤ 1.0, therefore,
𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 =∝ 𝐺 (1.6)
In general, a portion of the incident radiation on real surfaces is absorbed, reflected,
and/or transmitted. If surfaces are nontransparent, they are called opaque, where they
do not allow any radiation to pass through.
Observe the following three points: 1) absorbed and emitted thermal energy will reduce
or increase the internal energy of the body bounded by its surface; 2) reflected and
transmitted radiation has no effect on the internal energy of the bodies; 3)
absorptivity depends on the source of radiation and the surface itself; for example, a
surface may have absorptivity to solar radiation which is differenct from surrounding
surfaces.
Liquids will be mostly considered to be opaque for radiation, except when radiation
comes from a high-temperature source like the sun, gases will be considered
transparent. Solids will generally be considered opaque like metals or
semitransparent as in thin sheets of polymers or some semiconductor materials.
There is a special case where a small body enclosed by small surface surrounded by a
large surfce as depicted in Figure 1.5b. It can be shown that the radiation incident from
4
the large surface is approximately is 𝐺 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 , thus the net radiation on the small
surface for the case when ∝= 𝜀 is,
”
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝐸𝑒𝑚 −∝ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇𝑠4 −∝ 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟4 = 𝜀𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇 4
𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟 (1.7)
Furtheremore, in some cases Eqn (1.7) can be rearranged to ease the calculations as
”
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑟 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 (1.8)
with,
ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝜎 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 𝑇𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2 (1.9)
Note that in Figure 1.5b, the surface may also convect heat to the surrounding, hence
the total heat transfer for the surface is
” ”
𝑞 = 𝐴 𝑞”=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀𝜎𝐴 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 (1.10)
Figure 1.5. Radiation interaction with a surface.
Example 1.2
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25 C.
The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are
200 C and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the
coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is
15 W/m2-K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?
Solution
The emissive power is,
𝐸𝑒𝑚 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇𝑠4 = 0.8 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 200 + 273 4 = 2270.5 𝑊/𝑚2
The irradiation from the surrounding is,
𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑟 = 5.674 × 10−8 × 25 + 273 4 = 447.1 𝑊/𝑚2
The rate of heat convection is,
”
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 15 200 − 25 = 2625 𝑊/𝑚2
The net heat transfer from the pipe per unit length (when ∝= 𝜀, note 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿) is,
𝑞/𝐿 = 𝜋𝐷 𝐸𝑒𝑚 + 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣” −∝ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑟 = 𝜋 × 0.07 2270.5 + 2625.0 − 0.8 × 447.1
𝑞/𝐿 = 997.9 𝑊/𝑚
1.1.4 Thermal Resistance Definition
In analogy with electrical circuit, electrical current flows under the voltage potential through
an electrical resistance. Similarly, heat flows under temperature potential through thermal
resistance, hence one may write,
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 𝑉 𝑉
𝑞 = , or 𝑅𝑡 = similar as in electricity, 𝑖 = , or 𝑅𝑒 = (1.11)
𝑅𝑡 𝑞 𝑅𝑒 𝑖
where 𝑅𝑡 is the thermal resistance and 𝑅𝑒 is electrical resistance. The units for the thermal
resistance is 𝐾/𝑊 . The thermal resistance takes different forms for the three modes of
heat transfer. For example, for conduction,
∆𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴
𝐿
then,
𝐿
𝑅𝑡 = (1.12)
𝑘𝐴
Similarly, one can write the themal resistance expression for convection and radiation.
The concern in this course is thermal energy and mechanical energy. In general, the thermal
and mechanical energies are not conserved. Example of this is combustion where energy is
released from chemical reaction.
The statement of energy for a control volume can also be expressed as rate,
The rate of change in the thermal energy and mechanical energy in a control volume
equals to the rate of thermal energy and mechanical energy flowing into the control
volume minus the rate of thermal energy and mechanical energy leaving the control
volume plus the rate at which thermal energy and mechanical energy is generated
within the control volume.
Mathematically, the two statements are expressed as,
∆𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸𝑔 (1.14)
or,
𝑑𝐸
𝐸ሶ 𝑠𝑡 = 𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸ሶ𝑔 (1.15)
𝑑𝑡
The internal energy includes the 1) sensible portion which accounts for translational,
rotational and/or vibrational of atom and molecules; 2) latent energy which is related to
intermolecular forces that influence phase change between solid, liquid and vapor; 3)
chemical energy which accounts for bonds between atoms; and 4) nuclear energy whcih
accounts for energy holding the nucleus.
In general, in heat transfer focus is on sensible and latent energies which together are
referred to as “thermal energy” and given the symbol 𝑈𝑡 . Sensible energy is associated with
temperature change while latent energy is associated with phase change like from solid to
liquid which is melting and usually occurs at constant temperature.
If chemical energy conversion (combustion) is present in control volume it is treated as heat
generation per unit volume. Similarly, electrical energy is converted to heat due to the
passing of electrical current as it overcomes the electrical resistance which is equal to 𝐼 2 𝑅,
again it is treated as per unit volume. Likewise, nuclear energy conversion as heat per unit
volume. In summary, chemical, electrical and nuclear when present are treated as heat
sources or sinks.
If Eqn (1.15) is applied to a control volume with one inlet and one exit under steady-state
conditions and with no heat of generation, the equation becomes
𝑚ሶ 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑝𝑣 + 1Τ2 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑝𝑣 + 1Τ2 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑞 − 𝑊 = 0 (1.16)
There are four cases where Eqn (1.16) is simplified to following form (simplified steady-flow
thermal energy),
𝑞 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1.17)
In addition to the assumptions that led to Eqn (1.16) which include no energy generation or
changes within the control volume, the following cases where Eqn (1.18) is applicable are,
1- Ideal gas flow with negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies and no shaft work.
2- An incompressible liquid with negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies and no
shaft work nor flow work. Recall for ideal liquids; 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 .
3- An ideal gas with negligible viscous dissipation and negligible pressure variation.
4- An incompressible liquid with negligible viscous dissipation.
Viscous dissipation is the conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy due to viscous
forces which is important in case when fluid velocities are high or viscous fluids.
The mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ is computed from 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 = 𝜌∀,ሶ where ∀ሶ is the volume flow rate.
Example 1.3
The blades of a wind turbine turn a large shaft at a relatively slow speed. The rotational
speed is increased by a gearbox that has an efficiency of 𝜂𝑔𝑏 = 0.93. In turn, the gearbox
output shaft drives an electric generator with an efficiency of 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.95. The cylindrical
nacelle, which houses the gearbox, generator, and the length of the associated equipment, is
𝐿 = 6 𝑚 and diameter 𝐷 = 3 𝑚. If the turbine produces 𝑃𝑒𝑙 =2.5 MW of electrical power, and
the air and surroundings temperatures are 𝑇∞ = 25℃ and 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 20℃, determine the
minimum possible operating temperature inside the nacelle.
The emissivity of the nacelle is 𝜀 = 0.83, and the
convective heat transfer coefficient is ℎ = 35 𝑊/𝑚2 −
𝐾. The surface of the nacelle that is adjacent to the
blade hub is considered adiabatic, and solar irradiation
may be neglected.
Solution
The input shaft power to the output electrical power are
related as,
𝑃𝑒𝑙 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 × 𝜂𝑔𝑏 × 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛
Example 1.3, continue
The difference between 𝑃𝑒𝑙 and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is heat generated within the nacelle,
1 1
𝑞 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑒𝑙 = 𝑃𝑒𝑙 − 1 = 2.5 − 1 = 0.33 𝑀𝑊
𝜂𝑔𝑏 ×𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 0.93×0.95
This heat is dissipated to the environment by convection and radiation. Not accounting for
the wall resistance of the nacelle, then the outside surface temperature of the nacelle equals
the air inside, hence one may write,
4 4
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀𝐴𝜎 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 + 𝜋 𝐷 ൗ4 = 𝜋 × 3 6 − 3Τ4 = 49.48 𝑚2
Hence,
4
0.33 × 106 = 49.48 35 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 25 + 273 + 0.83 × 5.67 × 10−8 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 20 + 273 4
Note, 𝑇𝑖𝑛 is in kelvin. Solving for 𝑇𝑖𝑛 leads to 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 416 𝐾 or 143 ℃.
Note, this is the minimum temperature for the air inside, since the thermal resistances will
cause the inside temperature to higher.
Example 1.4
A long conducting rod of diameter 𝐷 and electrical resistivity per unit length 𝑅𝑒’ is initially in
thermal equilibrium with the ambient air and its surroundings. This equilibrium is disturbed
when an electrical current 𝐼 is passed through the rod. Develop an equation that could be
used to compute the variation of the rod temperature with time during the passage of the
current.
Solution
This is unseady case, hence Eqn (1.15) will be used, repeated here,
𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑡
= 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸ሶ𝑔
𝑑𝑡
Since for this case the rod is solid hence no inflow or outflow of kinetic energy nor potential
energy. The only inflow and outflow of power is the electric power 𝑉𝐼 and they cancel each
other.
The energy inside the control volume 𝐸𝑠𝑡 is only
sensible for 𝑈, hence,
𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑇
= = 𝜌∀𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where 𝜌∀𝑐 are rod density, volume and specific
heat; respectively.
Example 1.4
The rate of energy leaving from the control volume is due to convection and radiation, hence
𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ + 𝜀𝐴𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
Irradiation is assumed to be neglected. The heat of generation is
𝐸ሶ𝑔 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝐿𝑅𝑒’
2
Also, observe that ∀= 𝐴𝑐 𝐿 = and 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 is the side surface area, hence collecting
𝐷
𝜋𝐿 ൗ4
terms lead to,
𝑑𝑇
𝜌∀𝑐 = 𝐼 2 𝐿𝑅𝑒’ − 𝐴ℎ 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ − 𝜀𝐴𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑒’ −𝜋𝐷ℎ 𝑇−𝑇∞ −𝜀𝜋𝐷𝜎 𝑇 4 −𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝜋𝐷 ൗ4
Setting the lefthand side to zero for steady state
conditions under different electrical currents. For
example, for 𝐷 = 1 𝑚𝑚, 𝜀 = 0.8, 𝑅𝑒’ = 0.4 𝛺/𝑚, 𝑇∞ = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
= 300 𝐾, and ℎ = 100 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾, one can obtain a
distribution for temperature as shown in the Figure.
1.2.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Efficiency of Heat Engines
Recall that a heat engine is a device that operates on a thermodynamic cycle whereby it
receives heat, converts part of it to work and reject the rest to the environment as heat.
Example of heat engines are internal combustion engines, power plant and thermoelectric
devices.
The second law is expressed in several statement; however, the Kelvin-Planck statement is
appropriate to heat engines:
“It is impossible for any system to operate in a thermodynamic cycle and deliver a net
amount of work to its surrounding while receiving energy by heat from a single
thermal reservoir”.
A consequnce of the second law that heat must operate between at least two resevoirs
whereby not all the received heat is converted to worl; specifically, the efficiency is less than
100%. Hence, the efficiency of heat engine is
𝑊 𝑄 −𝑄 𝑄
𝜂= = 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1.19)
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
Heat engines have an upper efficiency when they operate under Carnot cycle. For Carnot
cycle, the efficiency
Heat engines have an upper efficiency when they operate under Carnot cycle. For Carnot
cycle, the efficiency
𝑇𝑐
𝜂 =1− (1.20)
𝑇ℎ
where 𝑇𝑐 and 𝑇ℎ are the absolute temperatures of the cold and hot reservoirs; respectively.
The thermal efficiency may be modified to account for the thermal resistances. In Figure 1.7 it is
seen that the engine sees 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 < 𝑇ℎ and 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 > 𝑇𝑐 where the 𝑇𝑐 and 𝑇ℎ are as before the
temperature for the cold and hot reservoirs; respectively.
For the same heat received from the hot reservoit, the
efficiency is
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝑐,𝑖
𝜂 =1− =1− =1− (1.21)
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑇ℎ,𝑖
where the ratio of amount of heat was replaced by the rate
of heat ransfer. Using the definition of thermal resistance,
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 /𝑅𝑡,ℎ (1.22a)
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐 /𝑅𝑡,𝑐 (1.22b) Figure 1.7. Accouinting for thermal
resistances in Heat Engines.
Substituting Eqns (1.22) into Eqn (1.21), lead to
𝑇𝑐,𝑖 𝑇𝑐 +𝑞𝑖𝑛 1−𝜂𝑚 𝑅𝑡,𝑐
𝜂𝑚 = 1 − =1− (1.23)
𝑇ℎ,𝑖 𝑇ℎ −𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑡,ℎ
which yields when soving for the modified efficiency,
𝑇𝑐
𝜂𝑚 = 1 − (1.23)
𝑇ℎ −𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
where 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡,ℎ + 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 . Note that the modified efficiency is less than the Carnot efficiency as a
result of the thermal resistances. Also observe when the total thermal resistance 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0, the
modified efficiency becomes the Carnot maximum efficiency 𝜂 given by Eqn (1.20).
The actual power produced by the heat engine with the presence of thermal resistances is
𝑇𝑐
𝑊ሶ = 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜂𝑚 = 𝑞𝑖𝑛 1 − (1.24)
𝑇ℎ −𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
Example 1.8
In a large steam power plant, the combustion of coal provides a heat rate of 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 2500𝑀𝑊
at a flame temperature of 𝑇ℎ = 1000 𝐾. Heat is rejected from the plant to a river flowing
at 𝑇𝑐 = 300 𝐾. Heat is transferred from the combustion products to the exterior of large
tubes in the boiler by way of radiation and convection, through the boiler tubes by conduction, and
then from the interior tube surface to the working fluid (water) by convection.
On the cold side, heat is extracted from the power plant by condensation of steam on the
exterior condenser tube surfaces, through the condenser tube walls by conduction, and from
the interior of the condenser tubes to the river water by convection. Hot and cold side thermal
resistances account for the combined effects of conduction, convection, and radiation
and, under design conditions, they are 𝑅𝑡,ℎ = 8 × 10−8 𝐾/𝑊 and 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 = 2 × 10−8 𝐾/𝑊,
respectively.
1. Determine the efficiency and power output of the power plant, accounting for
the thermal resistances for the cold and hot reservoirs. Treat the power plant as an
internally reversible heat engine.
2. Over time, coal slag will accumulate on the combustion side of the boiler tubes. This
fouling process increases the hot side resistance to 𝑅𝑡,ℎ = 9 × 10−8 𝐾/𝑊. Concurrently,
biological matter can accumulate on the river water side of the condenser tubes,
increasing the cold side resistance to 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 = 2.2 × 10−8 𝐾/𝑊. Find the efficiency and power
output under these conditions.
Example 1.8, continue
Solution
1. Using the modified efficiency Eqn (1.23)
𝑇𝑐
𝜂𝑚 = 1 −
𝑇ℎ −𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
The total resistance (in series) is,
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡,ℎ + 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 = 8 × 10−8 + 2 × 10−8 = 1.0 × 10−7 𝐾/𝑊
Thus,
300
𝜂𝑚 = 1 − −9 −7 = 0.6
1000−2.5×10 ×1.0×10
The power output, Eqn (1.24)
𝑊ሶ = 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝜂𝑚 = 2500𝑀𝑊 × 0.6 = 1500 𝑀𝑊
2. For the case of fouling
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡,ℎ + 𝑅𝑡,𝑐 = 9 × 10−8 + 2.2 × 10−8 = 11.2 × 10−7 𝐾/𝑊
Thus, the modified efficiency is
300
𝜂𝑚 = 1 − −9 = 0.586 and 𝑊ሶ = 0.586 × 2500 = 1465 𝑀𝑊
1000−2.5×10 ×11.2×10−8