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2016

BEEKEEPING MODULE
FS 322/FS 302
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Key words .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Beekeeping................................................................................................................................................ 5
Background Information ........................................................................................................................... 5
Unit 1. Importance of Beekeeping .......................................................................................................... 7
Benefits of Beekeeping ............................................................................................................................. 7
Direct Benefits....................................................................................................................................... 7
Indirect Benefits .................................................................................................................................... 7
Advantages and Disadvantages of beekeeping .................................................................................... 8
Importance of bees to Agriculture ........................................................................................................ 8
Unit 2. Anatomy and life cycle of a Honey Bee ....................................................................................... 9
General Structure.................................................................................................................................. 9
The Head ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Lifecycle................................................................................................................................................... 11
Egg ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Larvae .................................................................................................................................................. 12
Pupa .................................................................................................................................................... 12
Unit 3. Taxonomy and Classification of the honey bee ......................................................................... 14
Bee Taxonomy..................................................................................................................................... 14
How bees communicate ..................................................................................................................... 19
Bee Dances .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Unit 4. Environmental Requirements for Beekeeping ................................................................................ 23
Unit 5. Beehive Construction and Setting up an Apiary ........................................................................ 25
Unit objectives .................................................................................................................................... 25
Beehives .............................................................................................................................................. 25
The Apiary ........................................................................................................................................... 29
Baiting and siting Hives ....................................................................................................................... 30
Making the Veil ................................................................................................................................... 32
Beekeeping tools and Equipment ....................................................................................................... 32
Unit 6. Apiary Management .................................................................................................................. 33
Unit objectives .................................................................................................................................... 33

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 Inspection and Cleaning of an Apiary ................................................................................................. 33
Bee Pathology, Pests and Predators ................................................................................................... 33
Unit 7. Honey Harvesting ..................................................................................................................... 37
Unit objectives .................................................................................................................................... 37
Harvesting Honey Procedure .............................................................................................................. 37
Processing of honey ............................................................................................................................ 38
Grading of Honey ................................................................................................................................ 38
Packaging ............................................................................................................................................ 39
Labeling ............................................................................................................................................... 39
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................... 41
References .............................................................................................................................................. 43

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Key words
Bee, Queen Bee, Drone, Worker Bee, Beehive, Apiary, Colony, Brood, Comb, Beeswax, Absconding,
Swarming, Swarm box, Veil, Nectar, Pollen, Foraging, Bait , Propolis, Royal jelly, Honey, Dearth,
Supersedure cell, Barkhive, Loghive, Smocker, Supering, Pollen Basket, Pheromones, Capping,
metamorphosis, round dance, waggle dance, glossa

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Beekeeping
Beekeeping is an art/science of caring for/managing honey bee colonies in bee hives for various reasons
as determined by the beekeeper mostly for honey production. Beekeeping is also known as apiculture.
Reasons why people practice beekeeping vary widely as do those aspects of the subject in which
individual beekeepers become interested in.

Beekeeping is an ancient skill which has been practiced for a long time. Much has been written by man
through his studies on the behaviour of bees. Bees are flying insects belonging to the family Apis that
are mainly known for honey production. There are over 20 000 species of bees in the world of which
only four are specialized in honey production. Bees have not changed much since those early times in
terms of behavior.

In Zambia people have been harvesting honey from bees for a long time sometimes using traditional
methods which did not take into consideration the continuity of the bee colony. This is type of honey
hunting is discouraged today. Modern methods of beekeeping take into consideration the sustenance of
bee colonies for continuous honey production and other bee products.

Background Information
Modern beekeeping started in the 16th century when man learned to safeguard the future of the
colonies of bees he found in hollow trunks whereby a certain amount of care and supervision was
exercised. Before the 16th century, primitive people learned to get honey by robbing the bee’s nest in
hollow trees or rock crevices. Later on various methods came to be used as substitutes for the natural
dwellings of bees. These colonies of bees were collected together in an apiary for proper and effective
management. Hive construction depended on what local materials were at hand and on the local skill of
the various communities.

The first beehives (barkhives and log hives) were recorded by David Livingstone in 1854 in the upper
Zambezi among the Lunda of Chief Ishindi. However, beekeeping proper in Zambia started in the 17th
century, It was stimulated by beeswax trade which was started by the Portuguese traders in Angola. This
market attracted wax from those areas of Zambia bordering with Angola. Because of this market, by
1936, extension work in beekeeping and wax production was started under the guidance of Agriculture
Department of Northern Rhodesia. Colonial extension work concentrated on the promotion of barkhive
making and beeswax production, with good response, in the then honey hunting areas of Mwinilunga,
Solwezi and Kasempa Districts.

After independence, in 1964, the Zambian Government successfully made more comprehensive
extension messages which included the need of keeping bees in beehives. With improved extension
techniques and qualified manpower, the Zambian Government established beekeeping offices in all
provinces of the country because it attached a great importance to beekeeping basing on the good
climate and vegetation suitable to beekeeping in the country. The major ones being in Mwinilunga,
Solwezi, Kasempa, Mufumbwe (Chizera), Kabompo, Zambezi, Lukulu , Kaoma Machile Mumbwa

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Petauke, Lundazi, Mansa Mbala, Masaiti boma, Chati (Kalulushi), and Mwekera (the HeadQuarters of
Beekeeping in the Zambia).

Over the years, the beekeeping industry in Zambia developed to such an extent that three honey
processing plants were opened at Mwekera, Kaoma, and Kabompo with the fourth one Mwinilunga.

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Unit 1. Importance of Beekeeping
Unit objectives

By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Explain the benefits of beekeeping

List the products that we get from bees
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of beekeeping
Discuss importance of bees to agriculture

Benefits of Beekeeping
Direct Benefits
People derive a number of direct benefits from bees. Some of these benefits are that;

Honey is food for humans.

Honey is used as medicine i.e. as a cough mixture, for dressing wounds, for cleaning wounds and used a
healing agent on such wounds

Beekeeping is a source of income through the sell of honey, beeswax, propolis, pollen, royal jelly, sell of
beehives and other beekeeping equipment, renting out bee colonies to farmers for pollination
purposes, sell of honey beer (imbote), sell of foundation starters to beekeepers and selling of the bees
themselves i.e. brood and queen bees.

Source of foreign exchange through export of beeswax and honey, other bee products i.e. pollen,
propolis and royal jelly, beekeeping equipment, honey wine, bees

Production of beeswax for various uses i.e. making floor polish, shoe polish, varnish, lotion, coating pills,
cosmetics etc

Indirect Benefits
There are also some indirect benefits that one gets from beekeeping. The indirect benefits include;

Pollination of some agricultural crops i.e. sunflower, water melons, citrus fruits etc.

Conservation of forests – trees are reserved for bees to collect pollen and nectar. Honey hunting which
kills both bees and trees is discouraged.

Creation of Industries and employment.

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Figure 1. Beekeeping Products - Source [Link]

Advantages and Disadvantages of beekeeping

Advantages of Beekeeping
It does not require a large labour force – can be started by one person

In Zambia, does not need land ownership

Does not need capital in some cases

Does not take up much time

Disadvantages of Beekeeping
Destroys trees for hive making

Skill is necessary

Acquisition of equipment is difficult

Importance of bees to Agriculture

Bees are important in agriculture in that they facilitate pollination for a number of flowering plants. Bees
live exclusively on pollen and nectar. Plants produce pollen and nectar to attract honeybees so that the
flowers can be cross pollinated. In return the honey bees carry and move pollen from one plant to
another. About 70 % of the flowering plants require insects for pollination. This means that the
disappearance of bees would lead to loss of most of our insect pollinated plants. Plants that depend on
bees include;

• Soya beans and Alphapha - key feed component for livestock.

• Cotton – Used in the garment industry.
• Almonds, Apples, Oranges, Peaches, Cherries, Grapefruits, Tangerines -important fruits for
humans.

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Unit 2. Anatomy and life cycle of a Honey Bee
Unit objectives

By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Identify the different external parts of a bee

Explain the functions of the different external parts of a honey bee
Describe the life cycle of bees

General Structure
The body of the honey bee is divided into three main parts: the head, the thorax and the abdomen. The
honey bee has three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The outside of the body of the honey bee is
covered by the cuticle forming the exoskeleton to which the muscles are attached internally.

In its general structure, the honey bee resembles any other insect but in addition it has hairs which
cover its body. The bees’ coat is fluffy because most of the hairs are feather like, the shaft of each hair
having many short side branches. The head of a bee carries the eyes, antennae and the mouth. It is
joined to the next body division, the thorax by a slender flexible neck. The thorax and third section of
the trunk or the abdomen are made of rings called segments.

Figure 2. External Structure of a Bee

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The Head

Senses - Smell, touch, taste

The head of a bee has the following sensory organs.

Antennae
These are commonly known as feelers. The important sense which they posses is touch. They are also
the equivalent of a bees nose as well. The feelers are capable of detecting scents, important to bees at
concentrations of thousands of times less than the level that humans can detect. They also have organs
of taste on the antennae as well as on the tongue and forelegs. The head also carries mandibles and the
eyes. Inside the head are salivary glands which produce moisture and brood food glands which produce
the substance which larvae is fed on.

Eyes
Bees have three simple eyes on top of their heads. They work as light detectors. They also have two
compound eyes on each of the side of the head which are used to see the ultra violet as a color and are
also aware of the polarized light .Each eyelet of the compound eye is made of several cells which are
sensitive to light vibrations in a separate plane. Because of this, bees even if they can only see a little
patch of blue sky will know where the sun is and can use it to navigate.

Thorax
The thorax or chest of the bee has parts that give the bee ground and air mobility. The chest is the site
for attachment of the legs and the wings. It is also the site of the main muscle pack in the body of the
bee. Bees have four wings attached to the Thorax.

Abdomen
The abdomen of the bee contains the heart, the crop (honey stomach), the true stomach (ventriculus)
and the intestines. The female bees (Queen and Worker) will also have ovaries and sting in the abdomen
while the male (drone) will only have the male reproductive organs, the testes but no sting. The crop
holds nectar which is regurgitated once the bee returns to the hive and passed on to the house bees
which store it in honey cells.

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Legs
Bees have six legs and four wings. The legs have six main joints. Each of the first pair of legs carries a
device for cleaning the antennae. Each of the hind legs carries a device for carrying pollen basket or
corbiculla. All the legs have brushes on the inner surface to brush the body hairs free of pollen. The leg
ends in a foot that has two claws and a central pad. The claws are used for hooking on rough surfaces
and the central pad allows the bee to find grip on smooth surfaces such as glass.

Lifecycle

The honey bee is an insect which undergoes complete metamorphosis i.e. it goes through the
four stages of development (egg, larva, pupa, and adult/imago during its life cycle). The
developing honey bees in larva and pupa stage secretes special pheromones that help worker
bees to recognize the brood’s gender, stage of development, and feeding requirements.

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 Larva
3 days 51/2

Egg Pupa

Adult

Egg

The life cycle of the honey bee begins when the queen lays an egg. These eggs can be spotted in
the comb and spotting of eggs is one of the important skills that you need to develop as a
beekeeper. Spotting is not an easy task as the eggs are very tiny (about 1.5 mm). Presence of
eggs in the cells is an indicator that the queen is alive.

The bee that will develop from the egg will either be a worker bee (which develops from a
fertilized egg laid in a small worker bee cell) or a drone (which comes from an unfertilized egg
laid in a larger Drone cell).

Larvae
The eggs of bees develop into larva three days after they are laid. The larvae are on fed royal jelly in
early life. The feeding period on royal jelly differs depending on whether the larva will develop into a
queen, worker bee or drone. After the royal jelly feeding stage the larvae are fed on a mixture of pollen
and honey. The workers seal the larva cell after 5 days with wax.

Pupa
The larva is now officially a pupa (the plural is pupae). Here’s where things really begin to happen. Of
course the transformations now taking place are hidden from sight under the wax cappings. But if you
could, you’d see that this little creature is beginning to take on the familiar features of an adult bee. The
eyes, legs, and wings take shape. Coloration begins with the eyes: first pink, then purple, then black.
Finally, the fine hairs that cover the bee’s body develop. After 12 days, the now adult bee chews her way
through the wax capping to join her sisters and brothers.

Inside the sealed cell, the larva changes to pupa. In the pupa stage the creature transforms and begins
to take the shape of an adult bee. The body segments and the coloring are developed fully and by day
12 an adult bee chews out of the sealed cell.

You should note that the duration of development from egg to adult bee will vary depending on wether
the bee will be a Queen, Drone or Worker bee. The duration/length of these various stages is different

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for the queen, worker, and drone bees as tabulated below. The tables also sow the expected life spans
of the different castes of bees in the colony.

Table 1. Development Stages and Duration in each Stage of Queen, Worker and Drone bees

Bee Category EGG LARVA PUPA Total period in ADULT LIFE

Days

Queen 3 51/2 71/2 16 2 to 5 years

Worker 3 6 12 21 4 to 6 wks

Drone 3 61/2 141/2 24 2 months

Table 2. Development Stages and Day of Capping of Queen, Worker and Drone

Event QUEEN WORKER DRONE

Egg hatch 3rd 3rd 3rd

Cell is capped 8th 8th 10th

Adult emerges 16th 21st 24th

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Unit 3. Taxonomy and Classification of the honey bee
Unit objectives

By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Identify the different members of a bee colony

Identify different races of bees
Describe a bee colony
Describe the roles played by different members of the bee colony
Describe how bees communicate

Bee Taxonomy

Kingdom Animalia (animals)

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta (insects)

Order Hymenoptera (membranous winged)

Suborder Apocrita

Division/sectionAculeata (with stings, pollen baskets, fly on two pairs of wings, and have branched hairs)

Traditional classification Brothers classification

Superfamily Apoidae (plumose i.e. Sphecoidae

feathery or branched body

hairs) and diet consists of

nectar and pollen)

Group Apiformes

Family Apidae (social bees) Apidae

Subfamily Apinae Apinae

Genus Apis (honey bees) Apis

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Species mellifera L, mellifera L.

Races mellifera, adansonii,

capensis,carnica,unicolor,

intenmissa

Species and races of honey bees

There are different species of bees. A species may be defined as one of a group of families making up a
genus and is made up of individuals that can breed among themselves and have offspring capable of
reproducing. There are over 20, 000 species of bees in the world but only four species are honey bees
and these are:

1. Apis mellifera (the western honey bee)

Originated from Africa, is the most widely used and lives in closed cavities where combs are constructed

2. Apis cerana (the eastern honey bee)

Originated from Asia. It lives in closed cavities where combs are constructed

3. Apis florea (the eastern honey bee)

Also known as the little honey bee. Originated from Asia. The smallest honey bee of the four species.
Builds a single comb in an exposed area e.g. under a branch of a tree or wall of a building.

4. Apis dorsata (the eastern honey bee)

Known as the giant honey bee. Originated from Asia. It is the largest bee of the four honey bee species.
Builds a single comb in an exposed area on a branch of a tree or wall of the building.

Races of Honey bees

A race of bees may be defined as one that contains enough colonies in an area large enough so that it is
not likely to be wiped out by local catastrophies (disasters) i.e. disease, fires, poor weather or wintering.

Apis mellifera species divided into sub-divisions or races viz: European and African bee races.

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There are 10 races of bees in Africa and two of these found in Zambia are Apis Mellifera adonsonii and
Apis Mellifera Carpensis

Characteristics of African bee races

1. High tendency to swarm, migrate and abscond

2. They are easily provoked to attack

3. They have a small body size

4. Well adapted to a tropical climate

The Honey Bee Colony

A honey bee colony is a large number of bees living together as a family in a hive in which the mother
lives long enough to work in co-operation with her offspring for the development and growth of the
colony.

Figure 3. Picture showing a honey bee colony

Honey bees are social insects that live in colonies. Honey bee colonies consist of a single queen,
hundreds of male drones and 20,000 to 80,000 female worker bees. Each honey bee colony also
consists of developing eggs, larvae and pupae. The population in a bee colony fluctuates with
seasons. The number increases in hot seasons which coincides with increased activity of the
worker bees, they forage, store honey for the cold season, and they also build combs. However
the population drastically reduces in the cold season. To survive honey bees need the correct
diversity. While the queen is very powerful, it cannot establish a new colony without the
contribution of the drone which fertilizes the eggs and the worker bees that provide food and wax
to construct the hive.

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Figure 4. Different Members of a Honeybee Colony

The Queen

She is the only fecund female in the colony and she is also referred to as the “mother bee”. She lays
both fertilized and unfertilized eggs and provides colony cohesion through the ‘queen substance’ that
she produces from her mouth glands. She can lay 1500-2000 eggs per day for 5 years. The queen is
generally larger than the worker bee. Her abdomen protrudes beyond the wings. She also has an
unbarbed sting and has pollen baskets. The queen is genetically diploid having 32 chromosomes as she
develops from fertilized eggs.

The queen also secretes queen substance (pheromone) responsible for colony cohesion. Queen
pheromones are responsible for the following;

they inform the entire colony that the queen is available and this stimulates a lot of worker bee
activities such as comb building, brood rearing, foraging and food storage
outside the colony they act to attract drones for mating

Workers

Although worker bees develop from fertilized eggs, they are incomplete females (32 chromosomes) with
underdeveloped female organs (ovaries). They form the majority in the colony occurring as many as

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60,000 individuals. They have pollen baskets for collecting pollen from the field and a barked sting which
they lose after stinging a victim and die consequently. In addition they have four pairs of wax glands for
wax secretion which is used for comb construction.

Figure 5. Worker Bee collecting Nector and Pollen

The wings almost cover the whole abdomen. They have glands in their heads for production of royal jelly
which is fed to the brood and queen. A worker bee has a life span of about 4 to 6 weeks in the active
season and up to 5 months during the inactive season. All the work needed to provide and maintain the
requirements of the colony are done by the worker bees. In a normal colony, only mating and egg laying
are outside their domain. The worker bees are divided into a number of groups or categories in order to
perform various tasks of the colony. Worker bees also produce pheromones. These pheromones;

• Guide foraging bees back to the hive.

• trigger decisive actions such as aggression from the colony

Worker bees communicate where to get nectar by performing the famous bee dance. This dance is able
to alert the other worker bees where the place where the nectar is, the quality of the nectar and the
distance.

Drones
These are males and occur in few hundred (ranging from 200 to 2000) in a colony. They are developed
from unfertilized eggs (16 chromosomes). During dearth periods, they driven out or denied food. A
drone’s body is larger and stouter than that of a worker but weighs the same as the queen. The wings
are large and cover the blunt abdomen. The last abdominal segment is covered with lots of hair. The

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poison gland, sting, wax glands and pollen baskets are not found in the drone. Their main function is to
mate the queen. They have a life span of not more than 2 months.

How bees communicate

Bees in a colony communicate through chemical secretions (pheromones) and will direct other bees to
food sources by performing a dance. The pheromones are used to mark hives or a new home and also to
communicate danger.

Pheromones
Bees have glands that produce pheromones. Pheromones are chemical substances produced by
individuals which affect the behavior or physiology of other members of the same species. One
pheromone may cause a number of different responses depending on the environmental conditions and
pheromone concentrations.

Behaviour pheromones
Behaviour pheromones produced by the Nassonoff gland, which opens onto the side of the abdomen,
has many purposes, including attracting workers and queens. In small groups, the pheromone repels
and is used when a new queen feels threatened by the workers.

The main alarm pheromone is released with a sting and is a mix of many compounds.

Marker pheromones
The Nassonoff gland also used in the release of hormones for marking the hive, in scenting prospective
hive locations by scouts, and in gathering swarms in flight. When a new hive site is found, some bees
mark the entrance with a wet, white material from the end of the abdomen. The other bees will then
enter. When bees find a new source of food, they also mark it with the same chemical. The odour of
each colony is different, and probably results from a combination of endogenous (pheromone or
pheromone-like) materials and exogenous (food) materials in each hive. Colonies cannot normally be
combined into one hive without the bees fighting and killing one another. During heavy honey flows
colonies can be united without difficulty, as the difference in colony odour seems to disappear, or be
submerged by the scent of nectar.

Queen Mandibular pheromone

The queen bee exerts her influence over the hive by means of the Queen Mandibular Pheromone
(QMP). This acts as a mating attractant for the drones, and to suppress the reproductive systems of
the workers, ensuring that the queen is the only reproductive female in the hive.

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Bee Dances
Bees perform two dances to guide other bees to food sources. They perform the circle dance if the food
is near the hive and a waggle dance if the food source is further away from the food source.

The round (circle) dance

When a foraging worker bee finds food that is close to the hive (50 to 100 meters), she returns to her
colony and moves in circles. This behavior is called the round dance. It lets other forager bees know that
if they exit the hive and continue to fly in a circular path, spiraling away from the hive, they will
eventually, and quickly, find the food source.

Lloyd P. Birmingham

The waggle (wagtail) dance

When a foraging worker bee finds food that is far from the hive
(more than 100 meters), she must use the more complex, figure-8 shaped waggle dance to
communicate the direction and distance of the food source. The outer loops are simply walked.
The bee waggles where the dance path line is curvy. When a bee waggles, she rapidly shakes
her abdomen side to side. The waggle contains a lot of information. Distance is conveyed by the
speed of the waggle dance. If the dance is fast, then the food source is not very far. However, the
slower the dance, the further away the food source. Keep in mind that honey bees will fly a few
miles to reach a food source. Direction is conveyed in relation to the sun. Remember, the inside
of a hive is dark and bees are carrying out their dances on the wax comb, which is
perpendicular to the ground. So gravity is an important force used to communicate the
direction of a food source. Dancing straight upwards on the comb, against gravity, is equivalent
to flying towards the sun (see example 1 below). Dancing straights downwards, with gravity,
communicates that the food source is in the opposite direction of the sun (see example 2 below).
If a bee finds flowers that are in the direction of the sun, she will: 1) waggle while moving
straight upwards, 2) stop waggling and walk in a circle to the right, 3) waggle again while

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moving straight upwards, and 4) stop waggling and walk in a circle to the left. She will
continue this until other bees pay attention. Bees can convey more than "in the direction of" the
sun. For example, if a food source is 20 - degrees to the right of the sun, the bee will waggle in the
upward direction but 20-degrees to the right. Use the Waggle Dance Worksheet below to help
student work through the details of the waggle dance (see example 3 below). Treat it like a
secret language. With a key to decode it.

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Unit 4. Environmental Requirements for Beekeeping
Unit objectives

By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Describe ideal Environmental requirements for beekeeping

Describe plant species Ideal for beekeeping
Describe the Annual bee calendar

Protection from adverse weather conditions such as extreme heat, humidity, cold and strong winds.
Should contain enough shade and wind breaking vegetation for hives.

Water is of great importance for regulating the hive temperatures during hot days. It should always be
available within a radius of 500m. If necessary, place shallow water containers nearby and provide
“islands” of pieces of wood or stones, so that the bees can land and take off safely. Regular water supply
helps to keep colonies calm

Plant species
The ideal type of woodland for beekeeping should have up to 10% of every other flowering plant
species, 60% main honey flow species, and the remaining 30% second honey flow species. In Zambia, we
usually have two seasons for harvesting honey: April/ May/ June and October, November, December
seasons. The amount of honey you get in the two seasons will vary in yield.

.Table 3. The annual cycle (Beekeeper's Calendar)

Period Floral Activity Bee Activity

May – June (cold season) Few Flowers No breeding, but considerable
absconding. Julbernardia harvest
July Marquesia, Parinari and Breeding starts when pollen is
Syzygium spp. start flowering available. Absconding still takes place.
and give early pollen. Also
citrus
August Brachystegia spiciformis, and Breeding continues rapidly leading to
B. floribunda start flowering, swarming and migrating.
together with some of the
species mentioned under July
September to mid – October Brachystegias (including B. Breeding ceases during main honey
longifolia) in full flower. flow, and surplus honey stored.

November Few flowers except late B. No breeding

longifolia
December – February Few trees but many herbs in Breeding starts again and builds up
flower – also Eucalyptus. rapidly as pollen is available.

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 March Julbernardia spp. start Breeding slows and surplus honey
flowering. Also various crops stored – swarming and migrating.
like Sunflower.
April – May Julbernardia spp. in full Breeding stops during honey flow.
flower, crops, sunflower, Little bee activity.
cotton etc.
Note. Please try as much as possible to use local names for these trees. (Resource; Know Your Trees –
Some common trees found in Zambia – A.E.G. Storrs).

Some local names of tree species in zambia are as follows:

Brachystegia spicifomis; muputu, kampela, manga, mpazhi, muputi, mutuya, mupuchi, mputi, musewe.

Brachystegia taxifolia; ngalati, mukube, lukwe, muhana, tundu.

Brachystegia utilis; musaka, lwenshe, kasabushi, kasumbuti, kavwenji,mkuti.

Brachystegia microphylla ;mwelela, kalimba, mukongolo, mukuswi.

Brachystegia longifolia ;muombo, chombwe, musamba, mubombo, mbovu, msamba, mchenga.

Brachystegia floribunda ;musompa, chifwanga, musobo, mubombo, msamba, mvukwe.

Brachystegia bussei ;munkulungu, musombi, musonsolo, muselele, chikungu, mwanzamasaka.

Brachystegia boehmii; ngansa, musamba, muombo, mubombo, msamba, mchenga, mfundazizi,

mkomanyanda.

Brachystegia manga; musompa, msumbu, mtubila, mtuwa.

Brachystegia allenii; musumbu, chifuku, mbata, mvukwe, towe, twitwi,

Others include:

Julbernardia globiflora; mpasa, katondomumba, mwanza, kabunga, kamponi, mumba, sandwe.

Julbernardia paniculata; mutondo, muchesa, mwanda, mtondo.

Isoberlinia angolensis ; mutobo, kapane, msanganza.

Marquesia macroura; museshi, musanya, mufuka

Parinari curatellifolia; mupundu, mubula, mucha, mbula,mpundu, mula.

Syzygium cordatum; mufinsa,mukute,mushingu, musombo,mutoya,

mchisu,msombo,mwenye,nyowe,katope.

Syzygium guineense spp; mufinsa,chibumbya,musombo, musompe,mfowo,msombo,katope

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Unit 5. Beehive Construction and Setting up an Apiary
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Identify the different types of beehives

Prepare materials and tools required for beehive construction
Construct and bait a beehive
List requirements for an Apiary Site
Describe hive arrangement in an Apiary

Beehives
There are different types of beehives. Almost all the types have the same basic principles of
construction. We have the Top Bar hives, Bark hive, The Clay hive and Log Hive to name but a few. The
Top Bar Hive made out of planks, bark hives come from the barks of trees especially brachystegia, log
hive are made from hollow tree logs and Clay/Mad hives are made from Clay.

The Top bar hives are the most popular in most beekeeping enterprises. We will look at how one can
construct a Top bar hive in this section.

Materials and Tools and Equipment required for Beekeeping

Planks, Nails, Beehive, Claw Hammer, Measuring tape, Metal sheet, Driller, Wood Glue, Plainer, Saw,
Clamp.

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Top Bar hive construction

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The Apiary
An apiary is a place where bees are kept and managed in hives.

Factors to consider for an apiary site:

Many bee plants should grow within the vicinity of the apiary site (within a range of 2Km)

The land does not necessarily need to be potential farm land.

For safety reasons, the distance between the apiary site and public places such as schools, markets and
main roads should be at least 100m

For safety reasons, the distance between apiary and homestead should be reasonable, at least 50m.

To allow free and unhindered movements, apiary site should be on relatively flat land or at least not too
sloppy.

Protection from adverse weather conditions such as extreme heat, humidity, cold and strong winds.
Should contain enough shade and wind breaking vegetation for hives.

Water is of great importance for regulating the hive temperatures during hot days. It should always be
available within a radius of 500m. If necessary, place shallow water containers nearby provide “islands”
of pieces of wood or stones, so that the bees can land and take off safely. Regular water supply helps to
keep colonies calm.

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Setting up the Hives in an Apiary
Once you have properly constructed your beehive you have to set it up in an area where you think it will
be easy for bees to colonize it. The step by step process of setting up an apiary is as follows;

Site the apiary.

Bait the hives by smearing wax in the middle of the top bars.
Bench or hang the hives in the appropriate places you have picked.
Close the hives and wait for colonization.

Baiting and siting Hives

Baiting is the preparation of hives prior to occupation by honey bees. In our Zambian situation bark
hives are baited by smearing molten beeswax inside the hive while frame hives are baited similarly, but
smearing molten beeswax inside the hive is done on foundation starters and fixing them on the frame.
Baiting is done to attract new colonies especially swarming ones to new hives. Drifting bees can also be
attracted into these baited hives. Other than established hives, baiting can be done on swarm boxes that
may be used for transferring the bees into hives set at an apiary. It is an activity done to enhance bee
adaptation to a hive environment conducive for colonization and subsequent honey production.

The siting of bee hives is another activity done after the hives have been baited and ready for placement
in an apiary. This activity is of considerable importance and must be done in the right way to avoid
unnecessary drifting of bees from flights and also to reduce the amount of time the bee keeper would
take between hives during inspections and cropping. For example, drifting is common when hives are
placed in a straight line and appear to look the same especially when they have the same colour and
shape. Young bees need time to learn before they can locate their own hive. Bees are likely to drift from
queenless colonies to colonies nearby where there may be a queen bee.

Therefore, the siting of hives must be done in such a manner to avoid invasion of colonies by bees that
may be drifting from diseased colonies, hence, spread diseases easily. The following considerations
should be thought of when siting hives;

Avoid placing hives of the same shape and colour too close to each other. This will confuse the location
capability of the bees and make them drift into wrong hives.

Try and avoid siting or placing hives in straight rows unless this is an avoidable in which case face the
entrances in different directions.

Provide some distinguishing marks (stripes or patterns on entrances) on specific hives using paint or
different colours to enhance ease identification of hives by foraging bees.

Avoid repeating patterns, positions and entrance directions especially to adjacent layouts in an apiary.

Use some permanent landmarks within the apiary such as fences, trees, bushes or wind breaks that may
seem dividing an apiary into sectional areas.

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Making the Veil

Beekeeping tools and Equipment

Bee Brush, Smoker, Smoker Fuel, Cutlass, Queen Catcher, Protective Clothing, Hive tool, Hive, Swarm
box, Queen cage, Honey Processing Equipment, Wax Processing Equipment, Bee catcher, Knife, Plastic
Gloves, Honey Bucket, Lighter.

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Unit 6. Apiary Management
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Explain the importance of apiary inspection

Explain the importance of apiary cleaning
Identify the common pests and predators in beekeeping
Describe the common diseases

Inspection and Cleaning of an Apiary

The first thing you should do in Apiary management is to inspect the hives. It is important to inspect
your hives at least once every two weeks, so that you know what is happening inside and can take
actions to prevent disaster in good time. A beekeeper, who spends more time attending to their hives
and colonies, usually will have higher occupation rates and higher yields.

If bees are placed in a damp place the honey will be very watery and unripe honey will ferment. A hive
placed in a hot place or in the direct sun will force the bees to carry water to cool the hive. When they
are doing this, they will not produce honey. This stresses the colony and it may leave or die. The apiary
should be clean. The grass should be cut short and any branches that reach the hives trimmed to
prevent pests crawling in. Make sure the hive is safe from ants, the wires holding the hive should be
greased to also prevent pests. The ash should be placed around the stands. If your hives have a shelter,
make sure it is not leaking.

Bee Pathology, Pests and Predators

Bee Pests and Predators

The varroa mite is considered by many to be the most serious honey bee pest. This mite is an external
parasite that is visible to the naked eye. The brownish-red, oval (shaped like a tiny clamshell) mite feeds
on the blood of both adult bees and the brood. Heavy parasitism results in high bee mortality rates,
subsequent weakening of colonies, and often death. Efforts to stop the spread of these two mites have
been largely unsuccessful, but research into various chemical controls and alternative control
techniques such as the use of resistant stocks look promising.

Animals that seize or otherwise capture other animals’ food are classified as predators. Predators of
honey range widely in size from insects such as ants and dragon flies to large mammals or animals such

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as bears. Animals that are not predaceous but cause some harmful and disturbance to bees in their
nests as designated are pests.

Man – is the waste enemy of bees not only honey hunters and thieves destroy countless bee colonies
and hives, but also bee keepers themselves can cause losses as well. When they neglect their duties e.g.
when maintaining and protecting colonies against weather, natural enemies and fires.

Ants – are they second waste enemies of bees as they go for bees, brood and honey. Bees cannot resist
the fierce invasion by safari ants. Red ants could only be beaten back when they match in the vicinity of
the hive. The ants should be brushed off the hive once they have already besieged the hive.

Termites – problems faced with termites can be avoided by doing the following:

Suspending the hives between trees instead of pores.

Placing the supports of the stands in tins containing used engine oil.

Placing the hive the hive plat foam on live stands

Avoiding the use of unburned bricks as hive supports

Bee Pirates – these are slender wasps yellowish brown with black cross strips between October and
May, you may see them around hives. Bee pirates molest the colonies by catching the worker bees on
their return flights before they can enter the hive. From the end of November to the end of February,
they are most troublesome and they might even catch young queens returning from mating flights.

Greater Wax Moths – wax moths often snick into the hives to lay eggs on the combs. The emerging
larvae feed on brown combs producing silky tunnels till the entire comb is destroyed. A strong colony
can cover all its combs and the workers are able to remove the larvae often after stinging it to death.
However, a colony weakened by the disease or frequent swarming may not be able to patrol all the
combs. Control is by use of para-dichlonobenzen crystals that can be placed inside the hive to kill the
larvae inside the hive

Larger Hive Beetles – these may enter through gaps and cracks or large entrance holes. There are
several species: A black one and others of distinct markings. Only the black spp is dangerous to bee
colonies as it feeds on brood. The other spp feed on small amount of honey and pollen. These beetles
are most numerous themselves during the rainy season. The bees can not defend themselves against
these almoured creatures. Remove and kill them and consequently reduce the size of the hive entrance
to the size of about 1cm wide.

Honey Badger – the honey badger is a powerful mammal. In some areas it can cause great losses of
hives and colonies. The honey badger can break into hives to steal honey and brood. Hives which have
been sited far from houses should therefore be hanged (bar hives) or placed on strong trestles while are
about 1.5m above ground with overlapping plat-foam.

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Spider – cobwebs by spiders could capture foraging bees and may be in long run reduce the population
of the colonies. These should be destroyed when found within the apiary.

Other threats include; Fire, domesticated animals and pesticides.

Bee Pathology
Bee pathology is a study of bee diseases, their causes, symptoms and signs, prevention and control,
spread, favorable and unfavorable conditions and treatment. Bees are subject to certain diseases,
parasites, predators, and pests. Most pests and predators of bees are easy to control, but diseases and
two recently introduced parasitic mites are a great threat to the industry. Diseases may be grouped into
two categories: those affecting the brood and those affecting the adult bees. The brood diseases are
further divided into fungal, viral, bacteria diseases. The bacteria diseases affecting the brood include the
American foulbrood (AFB) which is caused by a microscopic spore forming bacteria called Bacillus larvae.
All castes are susceptible to this disease, with worker bees being more susceptible than the others. The
European foulbrood (EFB) is caused by a non-spore forming bacteria called mellisococus pluton. The
bacteria multiply in the mid gut of brood, and larvae which die from this disease do so when they are
about 4 days old. This disease is not considered to be serious though it is poorly understood. All castes
are susceptible to the disease.

The viral disease affecting the brood is Sacbrood disease which is raised by a small filterable sacbrood
virus (S.B.V). The virus is so small that it cannot be seen even by aid of a light microscope. It affects both
workers and drones pupae are killed occasionally. This disease rarely wipes out a colony of bees. There
are two fungal diseases affecting brood and these are the Chalkbrood and Stonebrood. Chalkbrood is
caused by microscopic fungi called Ascophaera apis zander. This disease is seldom serious because it is
not highly contagious. Only have small patches of brood infected and it rarely causes serious losses to
the bee keeper but in some cases honey yields may be reduced. Stonebrood is caused by a fungus
known as Aspergillus flarus. The disease is considered of minor importance. It is rarely encountered, but
can be differentiated from other serious brood diseases. Stonebrood disease causes the brood larvae
and pupae that are infected with flarus fungi to turn green in contrast.

Adult diseases include virus and nosema. Nosema is by far the most widespread of the adult bee
diseases. Adult workers, drones and queens are susceptible to nosema. It is caused by microsporichasis
nosema apis. The other adult disease is Acarine caused by a microscopic mite called acarapis woodi.
Mites and diseases associated with these mites were not common until the early 1980s. These mites can
cause high mortality rates in bee colonies if not properly treated. Beekeeping, whether for fun or profit,
is no longer possible without close attention to the control of these parasites. The tracheal mite is an
internal parasitic mite that lives and reproduces within the thoracic tracheae or breathing tubes of adult
honey bees. These microscopic mites penetrate the tracheae of honey bees and feed on their blood.

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Feeding by the mites damages the tracheal walls, which blocks the bees’ breathing passages. These
breathing tubes supply the flight muscles with oxygen. As a result of mite feeding, the flight muscles
may atrophy, and the bee may be unable to fly or control its body temperature. Pathogens also may be
introduced into the bees’ bloodstream by feeding mites.

The prevalence of all these diseases makes it difficult to keep bees profitably unless they are controlled.
Inspectors are authorized to prescribe treatment for diseased colonies and order the destruction of
those in which the disease is too far advanced to warrant treatment. Due to vigorous disease control
programs, beekeepers suffer few major problems with diseases. The biggest obstacle facing beekeepers
today is the presence of parasitic mites (varroa and tracheal).

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Unit 7. Honey Harvesting
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, learners should be able to;

Explain honey harvesting

Explain the procedure of harvesting honey
Identify ways of honey processing
Describe the processing of bees wax
Explain the importance of grading honey
Explain the importance of labeling

Honey harvesting is also referred to as honey cropping while honey processing is the extraction of the
harvested honey into the form it can be packaged for sell or consumption.. Some of the tools required
during honey harvesting are a smoker, torch, a red filter, knife, bucket, hive tool, brush and a record
card. The bee keepers are supposed to be dressed in clean protective clothing, preferably a white overall
with a veil and gloves. Usually it is advisable to work in teams of two or three people. Remember that a
hive should not be left open any longer than absolutely necessary.

Harvesting Honey Procedure

Harvesting honey, though an intimidating prospect when you think about it, can be simplified by
following a series of simple steps.

Pick the right time to harvest. Harvesting should be done either on a sunny day between 9:00 hrs and
16:00 hrs because most bees are out foraging which entails that naturally there are fewer bees to deal
with at the hive or it can be done in the night when it is cool and the bees are less active; however it
should always be done with complete body protection. Harvesting should be done two to three weeks
after the main nectar flow. In Zambia; we usually have two seasons for harvesting honey: April/ May/
June and October, November, December seasons.

Put together all the harvesting tools and equipment. Bucket, Hive tool, Knife, Smoker.

Wear protective gear. There is no way to completely prevent bees from attacking you when you remove
the honeycomb from their hive. As a result, a full beekeeper's protective gear is recommended
whenever you intend to harvest honey. In the least wear a complete veil and cover the rest of the body
with thick clothing such as overalls.

Gently smoke away the bees. Light the smoker and move toward the back of the hive. Blow smoke
around the entrance of the hive, then carefully remove the top and blow smoke into the opening. It’s
important that one uses the least amount of smoke necessary to achieve the task so that you don’t spoil
the honey.

Open the hive. Use a hive tool to lift the inner cover off the top of the hive. This tool looks like a small
crowbar. Slip it under the cover and push down on the tool to lift the cover up.

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Remove the bees. There may still be a few bees hanging around the frame you plan to remove. Ideally
use a blower or alternatively gently brush them off using a bee brush. If the bees get trapped in the
honey remove them by hand.

Get frames with honeycombs from the hive. Harvesting should be done from the end of the hive going
inwards. Put different colored combs in separate harvesting buckets. Also put uncapped honey separate
from capped.

Uncap the honeycomb. The honeycomb will be capped on the frame with beeswax. Use an uncapping
knife, fork, or dull butter knife to remove the wax and uncap the honeycomb from both sides of the
frame or alternatively you could remove the entire frame and uncap the honeycomb outside of the hive.
Slip your spare frames into the hive after removing the old ones. This is generally recommended since it
minimizes your overall exposure to the angry bees.

Take the honeycomb to an enclosed room. You should take the harvested honeycombs to an enclosed
room for processing. This should be done quickly to avoid attracting other bees which can swam the
combs and complicate the processing process.

Processing of honey
Honey processing involves several processes such as grading, crushing, extraction, heating combs,
straining the crushed combs, storing honey and packaging. Most honey in the Zambia is extracted and
sold as liquid honey. However, honey can be prepared and marketed in five different ways extracted
honey, section-comb honey, cut-comb honey, chunk honey, and finely crystallized or creamed honey.
The type of honey will entirely depend on the processing involved at every stage.

Processing starts with cropping.

Separate ripe honey from unripe honey.

Honey must never be subjected to prolonged heat of over 50 °C.

Storage buildings must be protected against hot sunshine.

Grading of Honey
This is sorting of honey with sealed combs from that which is mixed with pollen, brood and unsealed
combs. Grading of honey starts during the time of harvesting at the apiary, processing and finally at
packaging. Combs are put in different harvesting buckets based on the color, amount of pollen etc.

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Usually, sealed comb honey is ripe and therefore is first grade honey. This process is done just after
cropping and before the honey is broken in containers. During grading bees are brushed off the sealed
comb honey and light-colored combs which are usually not ripe are separated from the dark honey
considered to be ripe. At this point the separated honey combs are supposed to be packed in separate
containers and closed nicely before transportation. Combs which are of different color are also packed
separately so that evening during extraction, packaging and grading is according to color because light
coloured combs produce light brown liquid honey while medium brown comb honey will produce
medium brown coloured liquid honey and dark brown combs will as well give dark brown coloured
liquid honey.

Packaging
Honey, if properly packaged, can be stored for long periods of time. This property of honey allows
beekeepers to store some of their honey to sell during the off-season months at higher prices
rather than during the peak season when there is an excess supply of honey and the prices are lower.
The proper packaging and storing will ensure the honey maintains its quality and has a professional
presentation (looks neat and tidy) when it is being sold. The use of different sizes of packaging allows
beekeepers to target different customers. For example, a large family is mostly likely to purchase a 2
litre container of honey instead of the smaller jars. So selling only small jars might inconvenience
customers with large families who might have to make frequent trips to the market or store. The
same can be said about selling large containers only, customers on tight budgets might not be able to
afford the large 2 litre containers.

Labeling
Why label your product?

Labelling of any product is important especially if the beekeeper is considering selling the product
directly to retail outlets, supermarkets or even the local market. It is difficult for customers to
identify where the honey was produced and who produced it if no labels are attached. Those
beekeepers that produce high quality honey cannot charge a high price because they cannot
distinguish their honey from the rest on the market. If all the honey on display at a market is
packaged in similar containers it will be difficult for a customer to tell the difference. One of the
important aspects of labelling is that it provides product identification and product differentiation.
Labeling helps both the producer and the consumer identify the product. Product identification
allows consumers to easily recognize the different brands of honey on display in a shop. If the honey you
produce is of a high quality customers will always look for your label at the store.

Processing of Bees wax

Bees wax is another valuable bee product. It is a byproduct of the honey extraction process. Bees wax
processing involves heating and filtering. The process of bees wax extraction is as follows;

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Put the combs into a container in preparation for heating.

Fill the container with an equal volume of water

Gently heat the mixture to just below boiling point and stir continuously.

After all the wax has melted, pour into a different container through a strainer-usually a calicos held by
two helpers.

Then the person ties a rope around the lump of beeswax, twists and squeezes out the molten wax

Leave the mixture to cool and solidify, a layer of wax will float on top of the water

Break the cake wax into a clean container and add a few drops of water and repeat the process

Propolis
This is a resinous mixture that bees collect from plants and is mainly used to seal unwanted openings in
the hive. It also prevents disease causing agents to attack the hive due to its antibacterial properties.
The chemical composition and colour of propolis is dependent mostly on the source of the resin. It is
used by humans as a medicine because of its properties. It works well against viral diseases, gives relief
from inflammation, ulcers and superficial burns.

In beekeeping propolis is also used as bait in fresh hives. Propolis is harvested by scrapping it from the
inside of hives after honey harvesting.

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Glossary

Bee This is a flying insect belonging to the family Apis that is mainly known for honey production
(Note that some species of bees do not produce honey).

Queen Bee The single reproductive female member of a hive or colony (Sometimes referred to as
the “mother bee”).

Drone. An adult male bee.

Worker Bee Unmated female bee in a honey bee colony that carries out many duties including
foraging and & cleaning.

Beehive Enclosed structures in which bees live (House for bees which can be natural or artificial).

Apiary An area where colonies of bees are kept in hives (Also known as a bee yard).

Colony A large number of bees living together consisting a queen, drones and worker bees.

Brood Egg, Larvae or Pupa stage in the lifecycle of bees

Honeycomb Structure of wax made by bees for the purpose of storing honey. This is the place where
the queen bee will lay its eggs.

Beeswax Natural wax produced by bees

Absconding This is when all the bees abandon the hive completely and suddenly.

Swarming When a large colony of bees divide.

Swarm box Small hive used for transferring bees

Pheromones Chemical secretion released by bees for communication purposes

Venom Toxin released by an animal/insect for purpose of injuring another

Veil Protective head gear used in beekeeping

Nectar Sugar rich substance produced by flowering plants collected by bees to make honey

Pollen Powdery substance produced by plants containing male gametes used by bees to feed their
young

Glossa the tongue of a bee; used to siphon liquids

Foraging Process of searching and collecting nectar and pollen by bees

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Bait material used to entice bees to occupy a hive

Propolis Glue like (resinous) substance secreted by tree barks collected by honey bees used for
sealing unwanted openings to trap and block intruders.

Royal jelly Special honey produced by bees to feed the queen bee and developing bees (larvae
stage for drones and workers for 3 days)

Honey Sweet, sticky yellowish/brownish fluid made by bees from flower nectar

Dearth Period of little or no food (pollen and nectar) for bees

Supersedure cell Special cells in the comb made to accommodate queen brood

Barkhive A hive that is made from a bark.

Loghive A hive that is made out of a log.

Metamorphosis:The structural changes that occur through a bee's developmental stages.

Round dance: a dance used by honey bees to communicate the location of a nearby food resource.

Thorax: the middle body section of an insect where wings and legs are attached.

Waggle dance A dance used by honey bees to communicate the location of a distant food

resource in relation to the sun.

Ocellus (ocelli, plural) simple eye that is light-sensitive; bees have three such eyes.

Pheromone A chemical produced by bees to communicate with one another.

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References
Chilufya H. (1996). “Agroforestry Extension manual for Northern Zambia”, Regional Soil Conservation
Unit, Nairobi Kenya.

Kokwe M. (2012).” Forest Management Practices with potential for REDD+ in Zambia” MLNREP, Lusaka,
Zambia

Husselman M. et al (2009).” A Manual for Beekeeping Guide for Zambia”, Centre for forestry research
Lusaka, Zambia

Storrs A.E.G. (1995). “Some of the Common Trees Found in Zambia” Regional Soil Conservation Unit,
Nairobi

Waring A. Warring C. (2006) Get Started in Beekeeping.

Morse R.A. The Complete Guide to Beekeeping(1976). Pelham Books Ltd.

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