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Foundation Bridge Course: Part 1

Units, Dimensions, Significant Figures, and Error Analysis

1 System of Units and Physical Quantities

Physics is an exact science based on measurement. A physical quantity is a property of a
material or system that can be quantified by measurement.

• Fundamental Quantities: These are independent base quantities. The SI system de-
fines seven: Mass (kg), Length (m), Time (s), Temperature (K), Electric Current (A),
Luminous Intensity (cd), and Amount of Substance (mol). Additionally, there are two
supplementary quantities: Plane Angle (radian) and Solid Angle (steradian).

• Derived Quantities: These are algebraic combinations of fundamental quantities (e.g.,

Density = Mass / Volume).

2 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensions denote the nature of a physical quantity, represented by square brackets: Mass [M ],
Length [L], Time [T ], Current [A], Temperature [K].

2.1 Important Dimensional Formulae for JEE/NEET

Students must be able to derive these quickly rather than memorizing them:

• Force: Mass × Acceleration = [M ][LT −2 ] = [M LT −2 ]

• Work/Energy/Torque: Force × Distance = [M LT −2 ][L] = [M L2 T −2 ]

• Power: Work / Time = [M L2 T −2 ]/[T ] = [M L2 T −3 ]

• Pressure/Stress: Force / Area = [M LT −2 ]/[L2 ] = [M L−1 T −2 ]

F r2
• Universal Gravitational Constant (G): From F = G m1r2m2 =⇒ G = m1 m2 =
[M LT −2 ][L2 ]
[M 2 ]
= [M −1 L3 T −2 ]

[M L2 T −2 ]
• Planck’s Constant (h): From E = hν (Energy = h× frequency) =⇒ h = [T −1 ]
=
[M L2 T −1 ]

2.2 Applications of Dimensional Analysis

1. Checking the correctness of an equation (Principle of Homogeneity): You can
only add, subtract, or equate quantities with identical dimensions. Arguments of trigonometric,
logarithmic, and exponential functions must be dimensionless.

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2. Conversion of units from one system to another: Based on the fact that the
magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same whatever the system of units: n1 [u1 ] =
n2 [u2 ].
M1 a L1 b T1 c
     
n2 = n1
M2 L2 T2
3. Deriving relationships among physical quantities: If we know the factors on which
a physical quantity depends, we can derive the formula up to a dimensionless constant.

2.3 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

• It cannot determine the value of dimensionless constants (like π, e, or pure numbers like
1/2).
• It fails if a quantity depends on more than three fundamental quantities (in mechanics).
• It cannot derive equations involving addition or subtraction (e.g., v = u + at cannot be
derived, only verified).
• It gives no information about whether a quantity is a scalar or a vector.
Problem 1: Unit Conversion
Question: Convert a force of 1 Newton (SI unit) into dynes (CGS unit) using dimensional
analysis.
Solution: The dimensional formula for force is [M LT −2 ]. Here, a = 1, b = 1, c = −2. SI
System (1): M1 = 1 kg, L1 = 1 m, T1 = 1 s. n1 = 1. CGS System (2): M2 = 1 g, L2 = 1
cm, T2 = 1 s. n2 =?
1 kg 1 1 m 1 1 s −2
     
n2 = 1
1g 1 cm 1s
 1  1
1000 g 100 cm
n2 = 1 (1)−2 = 1000 × 100 = 105
1g 1 cm
Therefore, 1 Newton = 105 dynes.

Problem 2: Dimensional Homogeneity with Unknowns

b
Question: The velocity v of a particle at time t is given by v = at + t+c . Find the
dimensions of a, b, and c.
Solution: 1. Since c is added to time t in the denominator, by the principle of homo-
geneity, c must have the dimension of time. =⇒ [c] = [T]. 2. The term at must have the
same dimension as velocity v. [a][T ] = [LT −1 ] =⇒ [a] = [LT−2 ]. 3. The entire term t+c
b
[b]
must have the dimension of velocity. [T ] = [LT −1 ] =⇒ [b] = [LT −1 ][T ] =⇒ [b] = [L].

3 Significant Figures
Measurements are never exact. Significant figures indicate the precision of measurement. Rules
for Counting:

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1. All non-zero digits are significant (e.g., 42.3 has 3).

2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant (e.g., 50.04 has 4).

3. Leading zeros are NEVER significant (e.g., 0.0045 has 2).

4. Trailing zeros are significant ONLY if there is a decimal point (e.g., 4500 has 2; 4500.0
has 5).

Calculation Rules:

• Addition/Subtraction: The result must have the same number of decimal places as the
measurement with the fewest decimal places.

• Multiplication/Division: The result must have the same number of significant figures
as the measurement with the fewest significant figures.

4 Error Analysis
• True Value (amean ): If n measurements are taken (a1 , a2 . . . an ), the mean is taken as
the true value.

• Absolute Error (∆ai ): |∆ai | = |amean − ai |

• Mean Absolute Error (∆amean ): Arithmetic mean of all absolute errors.

• Fractional/Relative Error: ∆amean

amean

• Percentage Error: ∆amean

amean × 100%

4.1 Propagation of Errors in Calculations

When quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided, their errors propagate into the
final result. We always calculate the maximum possible error.

• Addition/Subtraction (Z = A ± B): ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B (Absolute errors add)

• Multiplication/Division (Z = AB or Z = A/B): ∆Z
Z = ∆A
A + ∆B
B (Relative errors
add)
Ap B q
• Powers (Z = ∆Z
C r ): Z = p ∆A ∆B ∆C
A +q B +r C

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Problem 3: Advanced Error Propagation

Question: A physical quantity X is related to four measurable quantities a, b, c, and d

2 3
as follows: X = ac√bd . The percentage errors in a, b, c, and d are 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%
respectively. What is the percentage error in X?
Solution: The formula for percentage error propagation for X = a2 b3 c−1 d−1/2 is:
       
∆X ∆a ∆b ∆c 1 ∆d
× 100 = 2 × 100 + 3 × 100 + 1 × 100 + × 100
X a b c 2 d

Notice that regardless of whether a power is negative or in the denominator, the errors
always add up to find the maximum possible error.
1
Percentage Error = 2(1%) + 3(2%) + 1(3%) + (4%)
2
= 2% + 6% + 3% + 2% = 13%