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Foundation Bridge Course: Part 3
Calculus in Physics (Differentiation & Integration)
1 Introduction: Why Calculus?
Algebra handles average changes over large intervals (∆y/∆x). But physical laws operate at
exact instances. What is the velocity at exactly t = 2.000 seconds? When the time interval ∆t
shrinks to essentially zero, algebra fails, and calculus begins.
2 Differential Calculus (Rates of Change)
dy
The derivative dx measures the instantaneous rate at which y changes with respect to x. Ge-
ometrically, it is the exact slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at any specific
point.
2.1 Physical Interpretation: The Tangent Slope
Consider a particle moving such that its position x changes non-linearly with time t. The
average velocity between two points is the slope of the secant line connecting them. However,
if we want the instantaneous velocity exactly at point P , we shrink the time interval dt to zero.
The secant line becomes a tangent line.
x (Position)
x(t)
dx
Tangent slope = dt = vinst
dx
P
dt → 0
t (Time)
• Instantaneous Velocity: v = dx
dt (Slope of a position-time graph)
d2 x
• Instantaneous Acceleration: a = dv
dt = dt2
(Slope of a velocity-time graph)
2.2 Advanced Rules of Differentiation
d n d
= nxn−1 and Constant Rule
Beyond the basic Power Rule dx x dx C = 0 , you must master:
• Derivatives of Trig/Exp/Log: d
dx (sin x) = cos x; d
dx (cos x) = − sin x; d x
dx (e ) = ex ;
d 1
dx (ln x) = x
1
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• Product Rule: d
dx (u
dv
· v) = u dx + v du
dx
• Chain Rule (Function of a Function): Vital for physics. If y depends on u, and u
depends on x:
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
Problem 1: Applying the Chain Rule
Question: The position of an oscillating mass is given by x(t) = 5 sin(ωt). Find its
velocity v(t).
Solution: Velocity v = dxdt . Here, the outer function is sine, and the inner function is
(ωt). We use the chain rule. Let u = ωt. Then x = 5 sin(u).
dx d du
= (5 sin u) ×
dt du dt
dx
= (5 cos u) × (ω) = 5ω cos(ωt)
dt
3 Integral Calculus (Accumulation)
Integration is the mathematical process of summing up an infinite number of infinitesimally
small quantities. It reverses differentiation.
3.1 Physical Interpretation: Area Under the Curve
If velocity is constant, displacement is simply a rectangle’s area: ∆x = v × ∆t. But what if
velocity is changing continuously? We slice the time into infinitesimally small rectangles of width
dt. The height of each rectangle is the instantaneous velocity v(t). The total displacement is the
sum of all these microscopic areas. Mathematically, this infinite sum is the definite integral.
v(t) (Velocity)
v(t)
Total
R t2 Area
v(t)
= t1 v(t) dt
= ∆x
t1 dt t2 t (Time)
• Displacement is the area under a velocity-time graph: ∆x = v dt
R
• Work is the area under a force-displacement graph: W = F dx
R
2
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3.2 Standard Integrals
xn+1
• xn dx =
R
n+1 +C (for n ̸= −1)
• 1
R
x dx = ln |x| + C
•
R R
sin x dx = − cos x + C and
cos x dx = sin x + C
Rb
• Definite Integral evaluates between limits: a f (x) dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) − F (a)
Problem 2: Work Energy via Definite Integrals
Question: A variable force F = xk2 acts on a particle. Calculate the work done in
moving the particle from x = a to x = b. R
Solution: Work done by a variable force is the area under its curve, W = F dx.
Z b Z b
k
W = dx = k x−2 dx
a x2 a
Applying the power rule:
b b
x−1
1
W =k =k −
−1 a x a
Substituting limits (Upper Limit - Lower Limit):
1 1 1 1
W =k − − − =k −
b a a b
Note: This is exactly how gravitational and electrostatic potential energies are derived!