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Vector Algebra: Masterclass Notes
Areas, Volumes, Sine & Cosine Laws, and JEE/ISC Applications
1 Area of a Parallelogram and Triangle
Vectors provide an elegant way to calculate areas of flat geometric figures in 3D space. The
fundamental operation used here is the Cross Product.
Theorem 1: Area of a Parallelogram
If ⃗a and ⃗b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is given by the
magnitude of their cross product:
Area = |⃗a × ⃗b|
Proof:
Consider a parallelogram OACB where OA
⃗ = ⃗a and OB
⃗ = ⃗b. Let θ be the angle between ⃗a
and ⃗b.
B C
⃗b ⃗
h ⃗a + b
θ
O ⃗a A
The area of a parallelogram is defined as Base × Height.
• Base = |⃗a|
• From △OBH, the height h = |⃗b| sin θ.
Therefore, Area = |⃗a|(|⃗b| sin θ) = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ = |⃗a × ⃗b|. ■
Theorem 2: Area of a Triangle
If ⃗a and ⃗b represent two adjacent sides of a triangle, the area of the triangle is:
1
Area = |⃗a × ⃗b|
2
1
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Proof: A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles. In the figure
above, diagonal OC divides parallelogram OACB into △OAC and △OBC. Thus, the area of
△OAB is exactly half the area of the parallelogram. ■
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2 Derivation of Sine and Cosine Laws
Vector algebra provides one of the most concise proofs for the trigonometric Sine and Cosine
rules, heavily tested in JEE Mains and Advanced.
2.1 The Cosine Law
Cosine Rule
In any △ABC with sides a, b, c opposite to angles A, B, C respectively:
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
Proof:
Let the sides of △ABC be represented by vectors such that CB
⃗ = ⃗a, CA
⃗ = ⃗b, and AB
⃗ = ⃗c.
⃗b ⃗c
θ
C ⃗a B
From the triangle law of vector addition, CA
⃗ + AB
⃗ = CB,
⃗ so ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗a, which gives:
⃗c = ⃗a − ⃗b
Taking the dot product of ⃗c with itself gives its magnitude squared:
⃗c · ⃗c = (⃗a − ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b)
|⃗c|2 = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b − 2(⃗a · ⃗b)
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2|⃗a||⃗b| cos C
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
This elegantly proves the Cosine Rule. ■
3
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2.2 The Sine Law
Sine Rule
In any △ABC,
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
Proof:
Consider △ABC represented by vectors taking a cyclic path, such that BC
⃗ = ⃗a, CA
⃗ = ⃗b, and
AB = ⃗c.
⃗
π−A
⃗c ⃗b
π−B π−C
B ⃗a C
Because the vectors form a closed loop, their sum is the zero vector:
⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0
Take the cross product of the entire equation with ⃗a:
⃗a × (⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗0
(⃗a × ⃗a) + (⃗a × ⃗b) + (⃗a × ⃗c) = ⃗0
Since ⃗a × ⃗a = ⃗0, we have ⃗a × ⃗b = −(⃗a × ⃗c) = ⃗c × ⃗a.
Similarly, taking the cross product with ⃗b yields ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c.
Thus, we obtain the symmetric relation:
⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗c × ⃗a
Taking the magnitude of each part:
|⃗a||⃗b| sin(π − C) = |⃗b||⃗c| sin(π − A) = |⃗c||⃗a| sin(π − B)
Since sin(π − θ) = sin θ:
ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B
Dividing the entire equation by abc, we get:
sin C sin A sin B a b c
= = =⇒ = =
c a b sin A sin B sin C
This completes the proof. ■
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3 Volume Calculations: Parallelepiped & Tetrahedron
The Scalar Triple Product (STP) [⃗a ⃗b⃗c] = ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) represents the algebraic volume of a
parallelepiped.
Volume of a Parallelepiped
If ⃗a, ⃗b,⃗c form the coterminous edges of a parallelepiped, its volume V is:
V = |[⃗a ⃗b⃗c]| = |⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)|
Proof:
Let the edges be represented by ⃗a, ⃗b,⃗c. The base of the parallelepiped is a parallelogram formed
by ⃗b and ⃗c. The area of this base is A = |⃗b × ⃗c|. The vector (⃗b × ⃗c) is perpendicular to the
base. Let ϕ be the angle between ⃗a and (⃗b × ⃗c). The vertical height h of the parallelepiped is
the projection of ⃗a along the normal to the base:
h = |⃗a|| cos ϕ|
Therefore, the volume is:
V = Base Area × Height = |⃗b × ⃗c||⃗a|| cos ϕ| = |⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)| = |[⃗a ⃗b⃗c]|
⃗b × ⃗c
Diagram shown separately.
⃗a
⃗c
⃗b
Volume of a Tetrahedron
The volume of a tetrahedron with coterminous edges ⃗a, ⃗b,⃗c is 1
6 the volume of the cor-
responding parallelepiped:
1
Vtetra = |[⃗a ⃗b⃗c]|
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4 Important Applications for ISC & JEE
• Coplanarity: Three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b,⃗c are coplanar if and only if their scalar triple product
is zero: [⃗a ⃗b⃗c] = 0. This implies the volume of the parallelepiped they form is zero.
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• Collinearity of 3 Points: Points A, B, C with position vectors ⃗a, ⃗b,⃗c are collinear if
⃗ = ⃗0, which simplifies to ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a = ⃗0.
⃗ × BC
AB
• Vector Area of a Triangle from Vertices: If A(⃗a), B(⃗b), C(⃗c) are vertices of a triangle,
the vector area is 12 (⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a).
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5 Worked Out Examples
Example 1: Area of a Triangle (ISC Grade 11)
Question: Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5), and
C(1, 5, 5).
Solution:
First, find the position vectors of the sides originating from A:
⃗ = (2 − 1)î + (3 − 1)ĵ + (5 − 2)k̂ = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂
AB
⃗ = (1 − 1)î + (5 − 1)ĵ + (5 − 2)k̂ = 0î + 4ĵ + 3k̂
AC
The area of △ABC is 12 |AB
⃗ × AC|.
⃗ Let’s compute the cross product:
î ĵ k̂
⃗ = 1 2 3 = î(6 − 12) − ĵ(3 − 0) + k̂(4 − 0) = −6î − 3ĵ + 4k̂
⃗ × AC
AB
0 4 3
Now, compute its magnitude:
q √ √
⃗ =
⃗ × AC|
|AB (−6)2 + (−3)2 + 42 = 36 + 9 + 16 = 61
√
Thus, the area of the triangle is 61
2 square units.
Example 2: Coplanarity Check (JEE Mains)
Question: Determine if the points with position vectors 2î − ĵ + k̂, î + 2ĵ − 3k̂, and
3î − 4ĵ + 5k̂ are coplanar with the origin.
Solution:
Let the points be A, B, C. The vectors from the origin are:
⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂, ⃗c = 3î − 4ĵ + 5k̂
For these vectors to be coplanar (meaning the points O, A, B, C lie on the same plane),
their Scalar Triple Product must be zero.
2 −1 1
[⃗a ⃗b⃗c] = 1 2 −3
3 −4 5
Expanding along the first row:
[⃗a ⃗b⃗c] = 2(10 − 12) − (−1)(5 − (−9)) + 1(−4 − 6)
= 2(−2) + 1(14) + 1(−10)
= −4 + 14 − 10 = 0
Since [⃗a ⃗b⃗c] = 0, the given points are coplanar.
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Example 3: Volume of a Tetrahedron (JEE Advanced)
Question: Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are O(0, 0, 0), P (1, 2, −1),
Q(3, 1, 2), and R(−1, 3, 2).
Solution:
The coterminous edges from the origin O are the position vectors themselves:
⃗p = î + 2ĵ − k̂, ⃗q = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗r = −î + 3ĵ + 2k̂
The volume is given by V = 61 |[⃗p ⃗q ⃗r]|. Compute the determinant:
1 2 −1
[⃗p ⃗q ⃗r] = 3 1 2
−1 3 2
Expanding the determinant:
[⃗p ⃗q ⃗r] = 1(2 − 6) − 2(6 − (−2)) − 1(9 − (−1))
= 1(−4) − 2(8) − 1(10)
= −4 − 16 − 10 = −30
The volume of the tetrahedron is V = 16 | − 30| = 30
6 = 5 cubic units.