This bridge provide us the most suitable Schering Bridge Theory

method for comparing the two values of This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the
capacitor if we neglect dielectric losses in capacitor, dissipation factor and measurement of relative
the bridge circuit. The circuit of De Sauty’s permittivity. Let us consider the circuit of Schering bridge as
bridge is shown below. shown below:
Measurements using
Electrical
Instruments
Lecture 4
Analog and Digital Instruments Classification of Electronics Instruments

The deflection type instruments with a The electronics instruments may be classified into the following three categories:
scale and movable pointer are called 1. Indicating Instruments. These are the instruments which indicate the instantaneous value
analog instruments. of quantity being measured, at the time it is being measured. The indication is in the
The deflection of the pointer is a function form of pointer deflection (analog instruments) or digital readout (digital instruments).
of (and, hence, analogous to) the value of Ammeters and voltmeters are examples of such instruments.
the electrical 2. Recording Instruments. Such instruments provide a graphic record of the variations in
quantity being measured. the quantity being measured over a selected period of time. Many of these instruments
Digital instruments are those which use are electromechanical devices which use paper charts and mechanical writing instruments
logic circuits and techniques to obtain a such as an inked pen or stylus. Electronic recording instruments are of two types:
measurement (a) null type–which operate on a comparison basis.
and then display it in numerical-reading (b) galvanometer type–which operate on deflection type.
(digital) form. The digital readouts employ 3. Controlling Instruments. These are widely used in industrial processes. Their function
either LED is to control the quantity being measured with the help of information feed back to them
displays or liquid crystal displays (LCD). by monitoring devices. This class of electronic instruments forms the basis of automatic
Some of the advantages of digital control systems (automation) which are extensively employed in the field of engineering.
instruments over analog instruments are
as under:
1. easy readability
2. greater accuracy
3. better resolution
4. automatic polarity and zeroing
Main Elements of an Electronic Instrument
Most of the electronic instruments have the following main three elements: (i) transducer (ii) signal
modifier and (iii) indicating device. The block diagram of electronic instruments is shown in Fig.
6.1. They are discussed below:
1. Transducer. It is the first sensing element and is required only when measuring a nonelectrical
quantity, say, temperature or pressure. Its function is to convert the non-electrical
physical quantity into an electrical signal. Of course, a transducer is not required if the
quantity being measured is already in the electrical form.
2. Signal Modifier. It is the second element and its function is to make the incoming
signal suitable for application to the indicating device. For example, the signal may need
amplification before it can be properly displayed. Other types of signal modifiers are:
voltage dividers for reducing the amount of signal applied to the indicating device or
wave shaping circuits such as filters, rectifiers or chopper etc.
3. Indicating Device. For general purpose instruments like voltmeters, ammeters or ohm
meters, the indicating device is usually a deflection type meter as shown in Fig. 6.1. In
digital readout instruments; the indicating device is of digital design.
Basic Principle
An electronic voltmeter works on the principle that a small voltage signal can be amplified using electronic
components (like transistors or operational amplifiers) to drive a meter movement or a digital display.
This allows the meter to have:
•High input impedance → draws almost no current from the circuit.
•High sensitivity → can measure very small voltages accurately.
•Good accuracy and frequency response (useful for AC and DC).
Main Components
[Link] Attenuator / Divider:
Reduces the input voltage to a manageable level for the amplifier, depending on the selected range.
[Link] Amplifier:
Usually an operational amplifier (op-amp) used to prevent loading of the circuit under test.
1. Provides high input impedance.
2. Ensures that the voltmeter doesn’t affect the circuit.
[Link] (for AC measurement):
Converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) so that the meter can measure the average or RMS value.
[Link] Amplifier:
Amplifies the rectified voltage so that small voltages can be read easily.
[Link] Device:
1. Analog type: Uses a PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) meter movement.
2. Digital type: Uses an ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) and shows the value on a numeric display.
Working Process
For DC Voltages:
[Link] DC voltage is applied.
[Link] goes through the input attenuator and amplifier.
[Link] amplified signal drives the meter or ADC directly.
[Link] output is proportional to the input voltage.
For AC Voltages:
[Link] AC signal is attenuated and fed to the amplifier.
[Link] amplified signal passes through a rectifier circuit.
[Link] rectified (DC) signal is filtered and then measured.
[Link] display is calibrated to read the RMS or average value of the AC input.

Types of Electronic Voltmeters

[Link] Electronic Voltmeter (DC-EVM)
[Link] Electronic Voltmeter (AC-EVM)
[Link] Responding Voltmeter
[Link] Responding Voltmeter
[Link] Reading Voltmeter
[Link] Voltmeter (DVM) – measures voltage digitally using
ADCs.
Direct Current FET VM

shows the diagram of a FET VM. As seen from this diagram, it makes use of a difference
amplifier. The two FETsin the diagram are identical so that increase in the current of one
FET is
offset by corresponding decrease in the source current of the other. The two FETs form
the lower
arms of the balanced bridge circuit whereas the two drain resistors RD form the upper
arms. The
meter movement is connected across the drain terminals of the FETs.
Transistor Voltmeter (Direct Coupled Amplifier)
The transistor voltmeter (TVM) is also known as electronic voltmeter (EVM). Fig. 6.4 shows
the transistor voltmeter (TVM) circuit. It is a dc coupled amplifier with an indicating meter. As
seen from the diagram, the circuit consists of an input attenuator source follower and dc
coupled
amplifier.
The purpose of input attenuator is to provide input voltage levels which can be accepted by
the dc amplifier. A FET is used to serve as source follower at input stage to obtain high input
impedance. FET effectively isolates the meter circuit from the circuit under measurement

Advantages
Some of the main advantages of transistor voltmeter are:
1. High input impedance to isolate meter from the measurement circuit.
2. The amount of power drawn is very low.
3. The overloading cannot damage the meter.
A.C. Electronic Voltmeter

An AC electronic voltmeter is used to measure AC voltage. Note that the PMMC meter
movement is used for measurement of AC voltage by inserting a rectifier in the measuring circuit.
Such meters are widely used and more accurate.
AC analog voltmeters are one of the most popular electronic measuring instruments in use
today. They are used to measure the r.m.s value of voltage of many waveforms commonly found
in electronics.
AC voltmeters are designed to respond to one of these three values: average value, rms value
or peak value of ac input voltage. Accordingly, this classifies the AC meters into:

1. Rectifier Type AC Voltmeter

2. Average Responding AC Voltmeter
3. Peak Responding AC Voltmeter
4. True RMS AC Voltmeter
Rectifier Type AC Voltmeter
Fig. 6.6 shows a simple rectifier type AC voltmeter. Here the diodes D1 and D2 are used for
rectification. For the positive half cycle the diode D1 is ON and meter deflection is proportional
to the avarage value of the half cycle.
In the negative half cycle, the diode D2 is ON and and D1 is OFF. The current throught the
meter is in opposite direction and hence meter movement is bypassed in. It produces
pulsating dc
and the meter indicates the average value of the input

The rectifier type AC voltmeters are of different types,

these are:
(a) AC voltmeter using Half-wave rectifier
(b) AC voltmeter using Full-wave rectifier
(c) Multirange AC voltmeter using rectifier
 A.C. Voltmeter using half-wave rectifier
The circuit of an AC Voltmeter using half-wave diode rectifier is shown in Fig. 6.7. The half-wave
rectifier circuit has been combined in series with a dc meter movement.

We know that r.m.s value of input voltage,

Erms = 10 V
Then the peak value is given by
Epeak = Erms 2
= 10 × 2 = 14.14
Therefore an average value of half-wave
rectifier
Eavg = 0.636 × Epeak
= 0.636 × 14.14 = 8.99 V
 Multirange A.C. Voltmeter and Ammeter

The main purpose of the multirange ac voltmeter is for measuring ac voltage for different
ranges.
Fig. shows the circuit diagram of such an electronic instrument. The rectifier type ac
voltmeter
is used with series of multiplier resistance R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5. Due to different multiplier
resistances various voltage ranges is achieved.
The resistance R5 acts as a basic multiplier resistance and corresponds to the multiplier
Rs.
AC Analog voltmeters are one of the most popular electronic measuring instruments in
use today.
They are used to measure the rms voltage of the many waveforms commonly found in
electronics.
True RMS Reading Voltmeter
The complex waveforms in instrumentation engineering are most accurately measured with a
true
rms reading voltmeter. This instrument indicated the rms value of any waveform by using an
rms
detector that responds directly to the heating value of the input signal. True rms voltmeters are
unique because they are the only type that accurately measure non-sinusoidal waveforms.
They
respond to the rms or heating value of the impressed signal.
The input signal is AC coupled, amplified or attenuated and heats a thermocouple. The
thermocouple produces a DC output proportional to the rms value of the AC input. This DC
voltage
is amplified and deflects the meter needle to the rms value. The response of the thermocouple
is not
dependent on the wave shape and thus true rms voltmeters can accurately measure non-
sinusoidal
waveforms
The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring thermocouple. This
produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of the bridge. This unbalanced voltage is amplified by the dc
amplifier and feed back to the balancing thermocouple. This heats the thermocouple again so that the bridge is
balanced. Then the output of both the thermocouples is equal. Under this situation, bridge balance will be re-
established. At this instant, the ac current in the input thermocouple is equal to the dc current in the heating
element of the feedback thermocouple. Therefore the dc current is directly proportional to the effective or rms
value of the input voltage, and is indicated
Advantages of True RMSby the meter
Reading in the output circuit of the dc amplifier.
Voltmeter
Following are the main advantages of True rms Reading Voltmeter:
1. Nonlinear behavior is avoided by using two thermocouples placed in same thermal
environment.
2. The true rms value is independent of the waveform of the ac input.
3. Sensitivities in the millivolt region are possible.
Basic Operation Steps
[Link] the test point:
The metal probe tip is placed on the point in the circuit
where you want to measure voltage, resistance, or
continuity.
[Link] detection:
The probe senses the electrical signal (voltage or
resistance) from the test point.
[Link] processing:
Inside the probe body, the signal passes through:
1. Input attenuator (to scale voltage safely)
2. Amplifier and rectifier circuits (to condition the
signal)
3. ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter), which
converts it to a digital value
[Link] calculation:
The processed signal is handled by an internal
microcontroller that computes the measured value
(AC/DC voltage, resistance, or logic level).
[Link]:
The measured value is shown on the LCD screen.
For continuity testing, a buzzer sounds if resistance is
very low (typically < 50 Ω).
Digital Voltmeter Systems
The digital voltmeter systems are measuring instruments that convert analog voltage
signals into
a digital or numeric readouts. A digital voltmeter is also called digital electronic voltmeter, it
measures and displays dc or ac voltages as discrete number instead of a pointer
deflection on a
continuous scale. Such a voltmeter displays measurements of dc or ac voltages as
discrete
Types ofnumerals
Digital Voltmeter
instead
Followingof are
pointer deflections
the different on aofcontinuous
types scale as in analog instruments.
digital voltmeters:
1. Ramp type DVM
2. Dual-slope integrating type DVM.
3. Successive-approximation DVM
4. Potentiometer type DVM
 5. Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)
Step-by-Step Working Process The conditioned signal is fed into the ADC, which converts it into a digital value.
1. Signal Input Common ADC methods used:
When you connect the test probes to a circuit: •Dual-slope integration ADC (most common in DMMs for accuracy)
•The red probe is connected to the positive or measurement terminal. •Successive approximation ADC (faster models)
•The black probe is connected to the COM (ground) terminal. •Dual-Slope Method Explained:
•The DMM senses the potential difference or current between these points. [Link] input voltage charges an integrator for a fixed time.
[Link], a known reference voltage discharges it.
[Link] time taken to return to zero is measured — this time is proportional to the input voltage.
2. Input Attenuator / Range Selection [Link] microcontroller calculates the digital value from this time measurement.
The input signal first goes through an attenuator network:
•This reduces large input voltages to a level suitable for internal circuits.
•For auto-ranging DMMs, this process is automatic. 6. Microcontroller / Digital Processing
(The meter detects the range of voltage or current and adjusts internally.) The DMM’s microcontroller:
It protects the DMM and ensures accurate readings over a wide range. •Receives the digital data from ADC.
•Processes it according to the selected measurement function.
•Applies calibration, scaling, and sign adjustments.
3. Function Selection •Sends the final computed value to the display driver.
Depending on what you choose with the rotary switch:
•The DMM routes the signal to the proper internal section:
• Voltmeter section for voltage 7. Display System
• Ammeter section for current The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) shows:
• Ohmmeter section for resistance •The numerical value of the measurement.
Each section has different circuitry to process the measurement. •The measurement unit (V, A, Ω).
•Optional indicators: Auto-range, polarity, battery low, etc.

4. Signal Conditioning
Before being digitized, the analog signal is conditioned: 8. Additional Features
•Amplified (if small) Modern DMMs may also include:
•Rectified (if AC signal, converted to DC) •Continuity buzzer: Sounds when resistance < a few ohms.
•Filtered (to remove noise) •Diode tester: Applies small voltage to test forward/reverse bias.
This ensures a clean, stable voltage proportional to the measured quantity. •Data hold: Freezes the last reading.
•Max/Min hold: Displays maximum or minimum measured values.
•Auto power-off: Saves battery life.
Loading Effect
When the voltmeter resistance is not high as compared to the resistance of the circuit
across which
it is connected, the measured voltage becomes less. The decrease in voltage may be
negligible or
it may be appreciable depending on the sensitivity (ohms-per-volt rating) and input
resistance of
the voltmeter. It is called voltmeter loading effect because the voltmeter loads down the
circuit
across which it is connected. Since input resistance of electronic voltmeter is very high (10
MW
or more), loading is not a problem in their case.
EX .6 Fig.1 shows a simple series circuit of R 1 and R2 connected to a 100 V dc source. If
the voltage across R2 is to be measured by voltmeter having
(a) A sensitivity of 1000 W/V, and
(b) A sensitivity of 20,000 W/V,
Find which voltmeter will read the accurate value
of voltage across R2. Both meters are used on the
50 V range.