Designation: E 2001 – 98 (Reapproved 2003)

Standard Guide for

Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy for Defect Detection in
Both Metallic and Non-metallic Parts1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 2001; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 4.1.1 In addition to its basic research applications in phys-

1.1 This guide describes a procedure for detecting defects in ics, materials science, and geophysics, Resonant Ultrasound
metallic and non-metallic parts using the resonant ultrasound Spectroscopy (RUS) has been used successfully as an applied
spectroscopy method. The procedure is intended for use with nondestructive testing tool. Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy
instruments capable of exciting and recording whole body in commercial, nondestructive testing has a few recognizable
resonant states within parts which exhibit acoustical or ultra- names including, RUS Nondestructive Testing, Acoustic Reso-
sonic ringing. It is used to distinguish acceptable parts from nance Spectroscopy (ARS), and Resonant Inspection. Early
those containing defects, such as cracks, voids, chips, density references to this body of science often are termed the “swept
defects, tempering changes, and dimensional variations that are sine method.” It was not until 1990 (2) that the name Resonant
closely correlated with the elastic properties of the material. Ultrasound Spectroscopy appeared, but the two techniques are
1.2 This standard does not purport to address all of the synonymous. RUS based techniques are becoming commonly
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the used in the manufacture of steel, ceramic, and sintered metal
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- parts. In these situations, a part is vibrated mechanically, and
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- defects are detected based on changes in the pattern of
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. vibrational resonances or variations from theoretically calcu-
lated or empirically acceptable spectra. RUS measures all
2. Referenced Documents resonances, in a defined range, of the part rather than scanning
2.1 ASTM Standards: for individual defects. In a single measurement, RUS-based
E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations2 techniques potentially can test for numerous defects including
cracks and dimensional variations. Since the RUS measure-
3. Terminology ment yields a whole body response, it is often difficult to
3.1 Definitions—The definitions of terms relating to con- discriminate between defect types, that is, cracks or other
ventional ultrasonics can be found in Terminology E 1316. discontinuities. Nevertheless, on certain types of parts, it can
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: be accurate, fast, inexpensive and require no human judgment,
3.2.1 resonant ultrasonic spectroscopy (RUS), n—a nonde- making 100 % inspection possible in selected circumstances.
structive examination method, which employs resonant ultra- Many theoretical texts (3) discuss the relationship between
sound methodology for the detection and assessment of varia- resonances and elastic constants and include the specific
tions and mechanical properties of a test object. In this application of RUS to the determination of elastic constants
procedure, whereby a rigid part is caused to resonate, the (4). The technology received a quantum increase in attention
resonances are compared to a previously defined resonance when Migliori published a review article, including the requi-
pattern. Based on this comparison the part is judged to be either site inexpensive electronic designs and procedures from which
acceptable or unacceptable. materials properties could be measured quickly and accurately
(5). The most recent applications include studies in ultrasonic
4. Summary of the Technology (1)3 attenuation, modulus determinations, thermodynamic proper-
4.1 Introduction: ties, structural phase transitions, superconducting transitions,
magnetic transitions, and the electronic properties of solids. A
1
compendium of these applications may be found in the
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc- Migliori (1) text. Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy also found
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.06 on Ultrasonic
Method. use in the study of the elastic properties of the Apollo moon
Current edition approved July 10, 2003. Published September 2003. Originally rocks (6).
approved in 1998. Last previous edition approved in 1998 as E 2001 - 98. 4.1.2 This guide is intended to provide a practical introduc-
2
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.03.
3
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of
tion to RUS-based nondestructive test (NDT), highlighting
this guide. successful applications and outlining failures, limitations, and

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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 E 2001 – 98 (2003)
potential weaknesses. Vibrational resonances are considered frequency of a torsional mode. A large defect can be detected
from the perspective of defect detection in 4.2. In 4.3 and 4.4, readily by its effect on the first few modes; however, smaller
a review of some of the types of RUS measurements are defects have much more subtle effects on stiffness, and
presented. In 4.5, some example implementations and configu- therefore, require higher frequencies (high-order modes) to be
rations of RUS systems and their applications are presented. detected. Detection of very small defects may require using the
Finally, the guide concludes with a discussion of constraints, frequency corresponding to the fiftieth, or even higher, mode.
which limit the effectiveness of RUS. Some modes do not produce strain in the end of the cylinder,
4.2 Mode Shapes and Defects: therefore, they cannot detect end defects. To detect this type of
4.2.1 Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy/NDT techniques, defect, a more complex mode is required, the description of
operate by driving a part at given frequencies and measuring its which is beyond the scope of this specification. A defect in the
mechanical response (Fig. 1 contains a schematic for the RUS end will reduce the effective stiffness for this type of mode, and
apparatus). The process proceeds in small frequency steps over thus, will shift downward the frequency of the resonance. In
some previously determined region of interest. During such a general, it must be remembered that most modes will exhibit
sweep, the drive frequency typically brackets a resonance. complex motions, and for highly symmetric objects, can be
When the excitation frequency is not matched to one of the linear combinations of several degenerate modes, as discussed
part’s resonance frequencies, very little energy is coupled to in 4.3.2.
the part; that is, there is essentially no vibration. At resonance, 4.3 General Approaches to RUS/NDT:
however, the energy delivered to the part is coupled generating 4.3.1 Test Evaluation Methods (1)—Once a fingerprint has
much larger vibrations. A part’s resonance frequencies are been established, for conforming parts, numerous algorithms
determined by its dimensions (to include the shape and can be employed to either accept or reject the part. For
geometry) and by the density and the elastic constants of the example, if a frequency 650 Hz can be identified for all
material. The required frequency window for a scan depends conforming parts, the detection of a peak outside of this
on the size of the part, its mechanical rigidity, and the size of boundary condition will cause the computer code to signal a
the defect being sought. “test reject” condition. The code, rather than the inspector,
4.2.2 Vibrational resonances produce a wide range of dis- makes the accept/reject decision. The following sections will
tortions. These distortions include shapes, which bend and expand on some of these sorting criteria.
twist. It is known that increasing the length of a cylinder will 4.3.2 Frequency Shifts:
lower some resonant frequencies. Similarly, reducing the
[Link] Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy measurements
stiffness, that is, reducing the relevant elastic constant, lowers
generally produce strains (even on resonance) that are well
the associated resonant frequency for most modes; thus, for a
within the elastic limit of the materials under test, that is, the
given part, the resonant frequencies are measures of stiffness,
atomic displacements are small in keeping with the “nonde-
and knowledge of the mode shape helps to determine what
structive” aspect of the testing. If strains are applied above the
qualities of the part affect those frequencies. If a defect, such as
elastic limit, a crack will tend to propagate, causing a mechani-
a crack, is introduced into a region under strain, it will reduce
cal failure. Note that certain important engineering properties,
the effective stiffness, that is, the part’s resistance to deforma-
for example, the onset of plastic deformation, yield strength,
tion, and will shift downward the frequency of resonant modes
etc., generally are not derivable from low-strain elastic prop-
that introduce strain at the crack. This is one basis for detecting
erties. Sensitivity of the elastic properties of an object to the
defects with RUS-based techniques.
presence of a crack depends on the stiffness and geometry of
4.2.3 The torsional modes represent a twisting of a cylinder
the sample under test. This concept is expanded upon under
about its axis. These resonances are easily identified because
4.4.3.
their frequencies remain constant for fixed length, independent
of diameter. A crack will reduce the ability of the part to resist [Link] Fig. 2 shows an example of the resonance spectrum
twisting, thereby reducing the effective stiffness, and thus, the for a conical ceramic part. Several specific types of modes are
present in this scan, and their relative shifts could be used to
detect defects as discussed above; however, the complexity is
such that, for NDT purposes, some selections must be made so
that only a portion of such a large amount of information is
used. For simple part geometries, the mode type and frequency
can be calculated, and selection of diagnostic modes can be
based on these results. For complex geometries, empirical
approaches have been developed to identify efficiently diag-
nostic modes for specific defects. In this process, a technician
measures the spectra for a batch of known good and bad parts.
The spectra are compared to identify diagnostic modes whose
shift correlates with the presence of the defect. The key is to
isolate a few resonances, which differ from one another, when
known defects are present in the faulty parts.
FIG. 1 Schematic of the Essential Electronic Building Blocks to 4.3.3 Peak Splitting—One of the techniques employed for
Employ RUS in a Manufacturing Environment axially symmetric parts is identified in texts on basic wave

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 E 2001 – 98 (2003)

FIG. 2 Typical Broad-Spectrum Scan

physics (7). Some test procedures are based on simple fre- orthogonal modes. This increases the frequency for that mode,
quency changes while others include the recognition that so both modes are seen. In addition, a crack or inclusion affects
symmetry is broken when a defect is present in a homoge- the symmetry. This splitting of the resonances is illustrated in
neous, isotropic symmetrical part. These techniques employ Fig. 3, which shows spectra for a good part and two defective
splitting of degeneracies or simply “splitting.” A cylinder parts. The part is a steel cylinder. Fig. 3 also demonstrates a
actually has two degenerate bending modes, both orthogonal to useful feature of this particular technique, that is, the size of the
its axis. The bending stiffness for both of these modes, and splitting is proportional to the size of the defect. It is important
therefore their resonance frequency, is proportional to the to recognize that not all resonance peaks are degenerate. Pure
diameter of the cylinder. Because the part is symmetric, both torsional modes, for example, are not degenerate, so they
modes have the same stiffness, and therefore, the same fre- cannot be used for splitting.
quency (the modes are said to be degenerate and appear to be 4.3.4 Phase Information and Peak Splittings:
a single resonance). When the symmetry is broken by a chip, [Link] In practice, the same empirical approach described
however, the effective diameter is reduced for one of the for frequency shifts is used to identify diagnostic modes whose

FIG. 3 Shown is a Bending Mode Within a Resonance Spectrum of an Acceptable Steel Cylinder (a), One With a Small Defect (b), and
One With a Large Crack (c).

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 E 2001 – 98 (2003)
splittings correlate with the size of a defect of interest. The addition to those resulting from dimensional variations with
sensitivity of this type of measurement is enhanced by the sintered parts (ceramics and powder metals). As long as the
interference, which occurs between closely-spaced peaks. The part is within the tolerance limits, and no other critical defect
destructive interference develops into a visible spectral split- is present, it is acceptable to pass the item. This is accom-
ting which would not be noticeable with the amplitude spec- plished by varying the frequency window that is scanned. Fig.
trum (the real and quadrature components add to form the 4 illustrates the ability to determine the thickness of an alumina
amplitude response). Most commercial systems function rea- washer. Twenty washers were measured with an accuracy of
sonably well without this attribute, but the problem can be ;1 µm and the results are plotted against the frequency of
exacerbated when the material exhibits resonance line widths specific resonances.
which are greater than 1 % of the frequency. Under such 4.4 Practical Considerations:
circumstances, it may be impossible to detect splittings without 4.4.1 Implementation:
phase information. [Link] An integration of RUS techniques into a manufac-
[Link] Degenerate modes all have the same phase at low- turing process is illustrated in Fig. 5 as an example of how the
symmetry points; therefore, if one mode is shifted slightly ideas of 4.3 are integrated into a commercial product. The key
destructive interference occurs between them, showing up as a element is the synthesizer/receiver of which several commer-
splitting if the sample rigidity is sufficient. The frequency cial instruments exist. It generates a swept sine oscillation over
difference between the two resulting peaks increases in direct a defined range as a continuous wave (CW) electrical signal,
proportion to the defect size. This does not hold for accidental and then moves to the next defined range. This pattern is
degeneracies, which are modes that by coincidence rather than replicated until the scan is completed. Either a piezoelectric or
by symmetry have the same frequency. The actual shift in an EMAT (8) transducer converts the electrical signal into a
frequency is no more than would be expected for an isolated mechanical vibration which excites the part. A second trans-
mode, but the interference enhances the visibility. ducer senses the vibration and converts it back to electrical
4.3.5 Dimensional Measurements: energy. The receiver detects the signal and performs an analog
[Link] Industrial sorting of parts often occurs in two sec- to digital conversion. Then, a computer processes the signal
tors: defect detection and dimensional inspection. Ceramic and displays the frequency spectrum. If the measurement is
plants often spend more resources on the latter than crack and being performed in a laboratory, the spectrum is analyzed
chip investigations. It is a relatively simple matter to use RUS visually to observe shifts, splits, or other phenomena of
techniques to measure physical parameters, such as weight, interest. In a production environment, a display is neither
density, and dimensions. In practice, one measures all the required nor even desirable under some circumstances. The
physical attributes possible. For a ring, these would include computer applies an algorithm that passes or rejects the part
weight, thickness, outer diameter, and inner diameter. It is based on predetermined criteria as described above. The time
imperative to use “good”, that is, as free of defects as possible, required for a measurement depends on the size of the part and
parts in this study. One measures a suitable number of the the mechanical attenuation (defined by the resonance line
lowest resonances and either plots each resonance frequency as width) of the material, as discussed in Migliori’s textbook (1).
a function of each parameter or uses the correlation feature of Mode measurement times in some particular systems may
standard spreadsheet programs. The best results are obtained typically range from 0.25 to 2 s/mode (depending on their
when singlets (single resonances) or nondegenerate modes are stiffness) and a particular part may require two to five modes to
used. Statistical analysis will reveal which resonances have check for all types of defects, as shown in Fig. 5.
significant correlations with the desired physical attribute. [Link] A specific application requires the development of a
[Link] Usually, these measurements are performed in con- complete NDT system. This system is defined by measuring
junction with crack/chip/seam detection. Resonant ultrasound the part for all of the types of defects of interest and integrating
spectroscopy techniques often have to accommodate shifts in the RUS measurement system with materials handling equip-
resonance frequencies associated with density differences in ment and with appropriate control hardware and software. Fig.

FIG. 4 Illustrates the Result of Measuring Ceramic Washers With a Digital Micrometer and Plotting the Thickness Against a Specific
Resonance Mode

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 E 2001 – 98 (2003)

FIG. 5 RUS Techniques Applied to a Complex Ceramic Part in Which Many Different Defects Might Be Present

5 illustrates the type of defects, which can be found using RUS duces texture. All conforming parts, therefore, will have split
(9). Five modes are used to detect the various defects of degeneracies, as well as those containing defects of interest.
concern. The first mode is a bending mode, which measures the The figure shows a diagnostic mode for a conforming part, for
top, washer-shaped section of the part. The second mode is a a part with a small crack, and for a part with a large crack. The
bending mode for the lower, rounded conical section of the defect of interest here is a small circumferential crack. The
part. It is sensitive to circumferential defects. The third mode is sorting of parts is accomplished by documenting the normal,
a breathing mode for the conical section. It is sensitive to axial acceptable split and discarding parts which exhibit larger ones.
defects. The fourth mode is a transverse bending mode for the The existence of this effect places a lower bound on the size of
washer section, particularly sensitive to gross cracks in the a crack that can be detected. The defects that are of most
section that move the first mode outside the measurement interest almost always produce spectral shifts well above this
window. The fifth mode is a bending mode for the tip. The lower bound. Depending on the materials properties, frequency
frequencies of the three higher modes all shift considerably due shifts can be used for the same purpose.
to standard dimensional variation, so information from the two [Link] Setting the rejection criteria is the primary task in
lower modes is used to dynamically set the frequency windows the engineering effort required to customize RUS techniques to
for the higher mode scans. The five measurements require a a given part. For the example discussed above, this approach is
total of 5.6 seconds. able to detect reliably cracks as small as 0.3 mm 3 1 µm 3 0.8
[Link] If a calibration is performed, the following proce- µm in roller bearing elements. The test also is able to detect
dure is recommended. The RUS apparatus can be calibrated heat-treatment failures and inclusions, and is applied success-
using a combination of a signal generator and a defined part. fully to both polished and rough finished parts.
Upon initial electronics checkout, a known calibrated signal is [Link] In 4.3.5, the application of RUS to measuring the
inserted from a signal generator, and the response recorded. length of similar parts is discussed. This application depends
Some manufacturers require a 62 Hz accuracy from a 1 MHz on identifying modes that vary with the dimension of interest.
signal. Following the electronics acceptance, the simplest To measure length, a torsional mode is used because its
calibration technique is to employ a standard part. These parts resonance frequency varies inversely with length and it does
can be of any geometry, but a small (#50-g) cylinder is not split. The mode selected must be of sufficiently high order
recommended. This part is unit specific and is delivered with to provide the required accuracy, but not so high that the
its spectra to the user concerned with calibration, both in hard measurement is complicated by the presence of other modes
copy and as a digital file stored in the software. The spectra is within the frequency window. For the example in Fig. 4, a
recorded over a broad range and compared with the file measurement precision of 65 µm is required.
frequencies, for a defined temperature. [Link] Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy-based techniques
4.4.2 Application Examples: also have been used to detect chips and cracks in ceramic parts.
[Link] The detection of defects using RUS-based tech- Successful implementations find chips, which cover only
niques has been demonstrated successfully for numerous types 0.01 % of the surface area of the part. In a typical example, the
of parts. Four examples will be cited here to show the range of spectrum of the chipped part shows a 20 Hz split of 240 kHz
applications. These examples highlight some attributes of RUS (about 0.008 %), a good approximation to the size of the chip.
techniques for nondestructive evaluation. They also illustrate In addition, the resonance frequency for conforming parts
some technical considerations that impact the implementation usually is lower than that for those containing chips (because
of RUS for a specific part. chips usually reduce only the inertia of the object as they occur
[Link] Fig. 3 illustrates one application of RUS to the at relatively lightly strained edges and corners). Note that
detection of defects in solid cylinders. For a homogeneous, cracks have a much more severe effect on the strength of the
isotropic part, Fig. 3 is applicable; however, steel parts usually part, and thus, produce much larger resonance shifts than do
are anisotropic because their forming process usually intro- chips.

5
 E 2001 – 98 (2003)
[Link] Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy techniques also sitating special instrumentation. Because the detection limit for
have been applied to the measurement of the mass of ceramic a defect is set by the size of the defect compared to the size of
parts where the density of the part varies substantially from the object, the ability to detect a small defect in a large object
batch to batch. All of the parts are within acceptable production becomes severely limited by the overall sensitivity, noise, and
dimensional variations but monitoring the change in average reproducibility of the measuring system.
mass provides useful insights for controlling other production [Link] Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy measures many
variables and can be done faster than by weighing. This properties simultaneously. In fact, unless the nature of the
approach involves developing a parameter that combines modes is known, it is very difficult to tell whether a frequency
modes that vary with dimensions and correcting for density shift is due to a dimensional change, an elastic modulus
variations. This parameter is accomplished by noting that change, or a homogeneity change without analyzing the
density variations affect all modes in the same direction; thus, spectrum using parts with known, quantified defects. The
the frequency measurements can be combined mathematically changes in the frequency pattern may be related to different
to define a suitable parameter. defects, dimensional changes or differences in materials prop-
[Link] Finally, when sorting parts by a RUS-based inspec- erties. These must be studied carefully using a sufficiently large
tion system, data on all failures can be stored. While the data batch of representative samples. Fig. 5 shows an example
can be analyzed in detail, it is available also for statistical where evaluating five separate frequency windows can detect
process control. For example, a protocol can be established to different defects at different locations.
alarm the system if three consecutive parts fail for any reason [Link] The breaking of a degeneracy by changing the
or can be limited to notify the operator in the case of part height symmetry of an object produces peak splitting which, with
exceeding the established limit for more than ten measure- interference effects described in 4.3.3, provides the most
ments. This rapid feedback can be used to control manufactur- sensitive detection of cracks, chips, and the like. The nature of
ing parameters, as well as to determine which process stage is many machining and grinding operations means that precision
responsible for a given defect. Significant savings in waste components usually are of high symmetry, and obversely, it is
accrue when a process error is found early in the manufacturing difficult to mass-produce precision parts of low symmetry. The
cycle. complexity of a shape will affect the mixing of the mode types
4.4.3 Constraints: and the density of modes per unit frequency of the object. With
[Link] In principle, a large enough set of the resonances of simple geometries, it becomes easier to find diagnostic reso-
any object measured sufficiently accurately would enable nances for sorting conforming and nonconforming parts than
detection of the smallest elastic or dimensional anomaly; with complex shapes. In the event that a part has a complex
however, often there are practical constraints limiting the shape or is inhomogeneous, different software tools may be
instances in which RUS/NDT techniques can be applied able to enable RUS testing.
successfully. Properties common to objects successfully tested [Link] The dissipation or internal friction in a material
by RUS/NDT techniques are: small size and weight (preferably determines the width of the resonance peaks. With soft
less than 2 kg and .5 m with any maximum dimension), materials (copper, carbon composites, etc.) the amplitude of the
however one manufacturer claims to have success with parts peaks is low, introducing noise problems, and the width
over 20 kg and exceeding 1 m in some dimension; precise reduces the precision with which the peak center-frequency can
dimensions and high homogeneity. The more precise and be determined.
homogeneous a part, the smaller the defect that can be 4.5 Summary—Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy is a new
detected; highly symmetrical shapes or simple shapes; and, NDT technique. Although, as with any technique, RUS has
resonances from hard (acoustically responsive) samples. These limits, when properly implemented, a wide range of parts and
parameters may give limitations to the size, shape, and location defects can be examined. RUS can be applied to metal,
of the minimum detectable defects. ceramic, and composite parts. Because it is a whole body
measurement, RUS determines the structural integrity of a part
[Link] In general, objects that do not meet at least three of
rather than scanning for “indications” of the location of
these conditions produce difficulties, which in practice often
individual defects.
require too many resources to eliminate. A discussion of each
condition is provided in more detail below.
5. Significance and Use
[Link] A major problem encountered with large objects is
their weight. The support points are places of large strains in 5.1 The primary advantage of RUS is its ability of making
the object and a place of solid contact with some support numerous measurements in a single test. In addition, it can
structure. This problem may cause a plastic deformation in the examine rough ground parts. It requires little sample prepara-
object and, for calculable objects, violates the requirement for tion, no couplants, and generally will work with soiled items;
a free boundary. Precisely reproducible support of heavy however, it has no capability with soft materials. Soft metals,
objects is difficult to achieve although supporting the weight polymers, rubbers, and wood parts are not viable candidates for
over a large area on foam rubber or another soft material may this technology.
be successful. If the transducer mass is negligible, solid
bonding of the transducers to the object will not affect the 6. Apparatus
resonances but may produce reproducibility problems. Large 6.1 A generic schematic apparatus for applying RUS/NDT
objects, of course, will have low-frequency resonances, neces- is shown in Fig. 1.

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 E 2001 – 98 (2003)
7. Keywords
7.1 acoustic resonance spectroscopy; elastic properties;
modes; nondestructive test; peak shifting; peak splitting; qual-
ity control; resonance inspection; resonance ultrasound spec-
troscopy; resonances

REFERENCES

(1) A. Migliori and J. Sarrao, Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy, John (5) A. Migliori et. al., Physica B1, 1993, p. 663.
Wiley and Sons, 1997. (6) O.L. Anderson, et. al., Proceeding of the Apollo Lunar Science
(2) A. Migliori, et. al., Physics Review B , 41, 1990, p. 2098. Conference 3, 1970, p. 1959.
(3) L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. Pergamon (7) Love, A., “A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,” p.
Press, London, 1986. 285, Dover Publications, 1944.
(4) W.H. Press, et. al., Numerical Recipes, Cambridge University Press, (8) M. Hirao and H. Ogi, Applied Physics Letters , 64, 1994, p. 2217.
Cambridge, 1986, Chapter 15. (9) Staff Report, Ceramics Industry Magazine, April 1995.

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