DBAN 1204

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT

WEEK 10 LECTURE NOTES: THE COORDINATING FUNCTION

Topic coverage: Coordinating function – work schedules, role definition, teamwork and rewards.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this session, learners should be able to:
1. Define coordination and explain its place among the management functions.
2. Distinguish between the three types of interdependence that create the need for coordination.
3. Explain how work schedules and role definition are used as practical coordinating tools.
4. Discuss teamwork and committees as mechanisms for achieving coordination.
5. Explain the role of the reward system in reinforcing coordinated effort.
6. Identify the factors and problems that affect effective coordination in organisations.
7. Apply the principles of effective coordination to a business scenario.

10.1 Meaning and Nature of Coordination

Coordination is the process of integrating the objectives, goals, plans and activities of the various individuals and
departments in an organisation with those of the organisation as a whole. It is often described as the “essence of
management” because every other function – planning, organizing, staffing and directing – ultimately depends on
the harmonious linking together of separate efforts towards one common purpose.
Coordination ensures that individuals and departments do not lose sight of the overall organisational objectives
while pursuing their own specialised activities. It also ensures unity of direction, so that individual and
departmental objectives remain aligned with the objectives of the organisation, and that the various units of the
organisation continue to function as integral, interdependent parts of a single whole rather than as isolated units.

Why coordination is necessary

The need for coordination arises mainly from the interdependence that exists between the various individuals and
units carrying out organisational activities. The greater the division of labour and specialisation in an
organisation, the greater the need for a deliberate mechanism to knit the separate contributions back together into
a unified outcome.

10.2 Types of Coordination (Types of Interdependence)

Managers coordinate differently depending on how units depend on one another. Three types of interdependence
are commonly identified:
Pooled interdependence: units are largely independent of one another and do not directly rely on each other's
daily output, even though each contributes to the overall organisation. For example, branches of a multinational
company such as Coca-Cola operating in different countries largely run their own operations, drawing only on
shared corporate resources.
Sequential interdependence: one unit must complete its work before the next unit can begin its own. The output
of the first unit becomes the input of the next. For example, in a manufacturing firm the sales department cannot
sell what the production department has not yet produced, so production must finish before sales can proceed.
Reciprocal interdependence: units depend on one another mutually and continuously, with each contributing to
and drawing from the others for a task to be completed. A good example is decision-making in a committee,
where every member's input is required and the members influence one another's contributions.
Managers need to correctly diagnose which type of interdependence exists between the units they supervise,
because the tighter the interdependence, the more intensive the coordination effort required.

10.3 Work Schedules as a Coordinating Tool

A work schedule is a planned timetable that specifies what activities are to be carried out, by whom, and within
what time frame. Work schedules translate the organisation's plans into a coordinated sequence of action and are
one of the most direct tools managers use to coordinate effort, especially where sequential or reciprocal
interdependence exists.

Purposes of work schedules in coordination

• They convert broad plans and targets into specific, time-bound tasks for individuals, teams and departments.
• They make interdependence visible: each person can see whose work must be completed before their own
can begin, and who is waiting on them.
• They allow managers to sequence sequentially-dependent activities correctly, avoiding bottlenecks (e.g.
ensuring production is scheduled ahead of sales and dispatch).
• They provide a reference point for monitoring progress, so that delays in one unit that would affect other
units can be identified and corrected early.
• They help balance workloads across departments, preventing some units from being idle while others are
overloaded.

Guidelines for effective work scheduling

8. Base the schedule on realistic estimates of the time and resources each activity requires.
9. Build in the correct sequence of activities, especially where one unit's output feeds another unit's input.
10. Communicate the schedule clearly to everyone whose work is affected by it.
11. Include checkpoints or milestones so that progress can be reviewed and schedules adjusted where necessary.
12. Allow reasonable flexibility for unforeseen delays, without losing sight of the overall deadline.

10.4 Role Definition as a Coordinating Tool

Role definition refers to the clear specification of what each position, individual or unit is responsible for, the
authority attached to it, and how it relates to other positions in the organisation. Just as organizing establishes
structure, coordination depends on that structure being translated into clearly understood day-to-day roles so that
effort is not duplicated and nothing important is left undone.

Why clear role definition supports coordination

• It removes ambiguity about who is responsible for a given task, reducing overlap and duplication of effort
between individuals or departments.
 • It clarifies the boundaries of authority, so that employees know what decisions they may make on their own
and what must be referred elsewhere.
• It shows each employee how their role links to the roles of others, reinforcing the sense that individual jobs
are part of an integrated whole.
• It provides a basis for holding individuals accountable, since performance can be measured against a clearly
defined role.
• It reduces interpersonal conflict, since disagreements over “whose job it is” are minimised.

Practical ways roles are defined

• Job descriptions and job specifications that spell out duties, reporting lines and required competences.
• Organisation charts that show formal reporting relationships between positions.
• Policies, rules and standard operating procedures that guide how a role should be carried out.
• Delegation of authority, which assigns specific decision-making powers to specific roles.
Role definition works together with a reduced span of control (a manager overseeing only a manageable number
of subordinates) and a clear line of organisation structure, policies, rules and procedures, all of which the
textbook identifies as principles of effective coordination.

10.5 Teamwork and Committees

Teamwork is one of the most important mechanisms managers use to achieve coordination in practice. Where
reciprocal interdependence is high, formal structures such as committees, task forces and cross-functional teams
are commonly used to coordinate effort.

Committees as a coordinating mechanism

A committee is a group of persons formally constituted to consider, investigate, deliberate on or act upon a given
matter, and to report on it. Committees may also be referred to by other names such as a task force, council,
board, agency or commission. Participation in committee meetings promotes teamwork, mutual understanding
and cooperation among employees, and brings together managers from different departments to unify and
integrate different points of view.

Reasons why committees are widely used

• They pool the knowledge and experience of several individuals, since no single person usually has full
knowledge of a complex subject.
• They distribute authority, avoiding the concentration of sensitive decisions in one individual.
• They build support for decisions, since members who participate in reaching a decision are more likely to
support its implementation.
• They facilitate coordination directly, by bringing together representatives of different departments to align
their activities.
• They broaden participants' knowledge and serve as a useful training ground for developing managers.
• They improve communication between different parts of the organisation.

Limitations of committees
• They are relatively expensive to run, since several people's time is used on one matter.
• They tend to act slowly and can be indecisive, especially without clear guidance.
 • They can lead to compromise decisions that reflect a middle ground rather than the best solution.
• Responsibility for a decision is diffused and cannot easily be pinned on one individual.
• A few dominant members may control the outcome, undermining genuine group input.
• Committees can develop a tendency to perpetuate themselves even after their purpose has been achieved.
• It is difficult to maintain confidentiality where many people are involved in a decision.

Guidelines for making committees / teams work effectively

13. State the purpose of the committee or team clearly, in writing.
14. Plan properly for the tasks the committee is expected to accomplish.
15. Keep the size of the team just large enough to secure the range of representation and expertise required,
without becoming unwieldy.
16. Select members carefully for the knowledge, skills and experience they bring.
17. Give the team or committee a competent chairperson able to manage discussion and keep it focused.
18. Set clear timelines and follow up to ensure recommendations are actually implemented.

10.6 Rewards and Coordination

A well-designed reward system reinforces coordination by encouraging individuals and units to see their success
as tied to the success of the whole organisation, rather than to narrow departmental or personal goals alone.

How rewards support coordinated effort

• Linking part of remuneration or recognition to overall team, departmental or organisational performance
(rather than purely individual output) encourages employees to cooperate with other units instead of
competing against them.
• Rewarding managers for coordinating well – for example, meeting joint targets, resolving cross-department
dependencies, or supporting other units – signals that coordination is valued, not just individual results.
• Fair and transparent rewards reduce the interpersonal friction (differences in interpersonal relations,
leadership style, or evaluation criteria) that the textbook identifies as a common problem managers face in
achieving coordination.
• Non-financial rewards, such as recognition, involvement in decision-making, and opportunities for growth,
can be as effective as pay in reinforcing cooperative behaviour between units.
• Reward systems should be consistent with organisational policies, rules and structure, so that what is
rewarded in practice actually matches what coordination requires.

Caution
Where reward systems are poorly designed – for instance, where departments are rewarded purely on their own
output targets with no regard for how their actions affect other departments – they can actively work against
coordination, encouraging units to optimise their own performance at the expense of the wider organisation.
Managers must therefore review reward criteria to ensure they reinforce, rather than undermine, cooperation
across units.

10.7 Factors Affecting Coordination of Work

 19. Span of control – coordination is easier where a manager's span of control is narrow, and more difficult
where it is wide.
20. Nature of the communication system available – coordination requires a free flow of communication and
becomes easier where proper communication systems are in place.
21. Operating environment of the organisation – where environmental factors are constantly changing,
coordination becomes harder because managers must continuously monitor conditions and update plans and
activities accordingly.
22. Degree of decentralisation – in a highly decentralised organisation, coordination can become more difficult
because of the wide range of independent units involved.
23. Nature of specialisation within the organisation – where individuals are highly specialised, coordination
becomes harder because each expert tends to have their own way of achieving goals.

10.8 Problems Managers Face in Achieving Effective Coordination

• Differences in interpersonal relations – managers in different departments may hold different views on how
to relate to one another and on how objectives should be pursued, making coordination difficult.
• Differences in control and evaluation – members of different units often use different methods to evaluate
work done, complicating joint assessment.
• Differences in time orientation – the time required to complete different activities varies across units,
making it difficult to synchronise them.
• Differences in leadership orientation – managers in different units may each believe their own leadership
style should prevail, creating friction.
• Differences in communication orientation – different units may use different terminology or communication
norms; the absence of a common communication system can inhibit effective coordination.

10.9 Principles of Effective Coordination

24. Maintain a sound communication system that allows the free flow of information between individuals and
departments.
25. Supply each department with the resources it needs for its activities; this reduces unnecessary
interdependence and makes coordination easier.
26. Keep spans of control reasonably narrow, so that a manager has only a manageable number of subordinates
reporting directly to them.
27. Organise coordination along the formal line of the organisation structure, and support it with clear policies,
rules and procedures.

Quick Recap – Key Terms

▸ Coordination – integrating the objectives, plans and activities of individuals and departments with those of the
whole organisation.
▸ Pooled / sequential / reciprocal interdependence – the three ways units may depend on one another.
▸ Work schedule – a time-bound plan that sequences and synchronises activities across individuals and units.
▸ Role definition – clear specification of responsibilities and authority that removes overlap and ambiguity.
 ▸ Committee/team – a formally constituted group used to pool expertise, distribute authority and build support
for decisions.
▸ Reward system – the mechanism that reinforces (or, if poorly designed, undermines) coordinated effort.

10.10 Case Discussion / Class Activity

In groups, consider a retail company whose Purchasing, Warehousing and Sales departments frequently miss
each other's deadlines: Purchasing orders stock without checking Sales forecasts, Warehousing is not informed of
delivery dates, and Sales promises customers goods that are not yet in stock.
28. Identify the type of interdependence that exists between the three departments.
29. Explain, using at least two coordinating tools discussed in this chapter (e.g. work schedules, role definition,
committees, rewards), how the company could resolve the breakdown.
30. Identify which of the “problems in achieving coordination” discussed above is most likely at play, and
suggest how it could be addressed.

Review Questions
31. Define coordination and explain why it is regarded as the essence of management.
32. Distinguish between pooled, sequential and reciprocal interdependence, giving an example of each.
33. Explain how work schedules and role definition contribute to effective coordination.
34. Discuss the advantages and limitations of using committees to achieve coordination.
35. Explain how a reward system can either support or undermine coordination in an organisation.
36. Outline the factors that affect coordination of work in an organisation.
37. Discuss any four problems managers face in achieving effective coordination.
38. State and explain the principles of effective coordination.

Source: Adapted from the DBAN 1204 course text, Principles and Practice of Management, and standard management texts on the
coordinating function (Bauer, Erdogan & Short; Prasad).