4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4.3.7 Circuits with Multiple Sources of e.m.f 4 Your notes Circuits with Multiple Sources of e.m.f = More complex circuit problems may include circuits with two or more sources of e.m.f * Thisis often frommutiple cells * Cells can also be connectedin series or parallel = The total voltage of the combined cells canbe calculatedin the same way as voltage: = Ifthe cells are connectedin series, the total voltage between the ends of the chain of cells is the sum of the potentialdifference across each cell 1 Ifthe cells are connectedin parallel, the totalvoltage across the arrangementis the same as for onecell 2v —+-—_| H—_+—_ 2v 2v 2V DW re CELLS IN SERIES CELLS IN PARALLEL oval —_.— 2V 1» The important partis making sure current flowing in one direction (from positive to negative) is taken as positive and the current flowing in the opposite direction as negative Aims of the Experiment = The aim of the experiments to investigate circuits with more than one source of e.m. (batteries) = Thetotalpotentialditference [Link] series and parallel circuit should be similarto the calculated totalpotential difference of the circuit Variables: 1 Independent variable = Potential difference of the cells, Vital = Dependent variable = Potential difference of the resistor, V Equipment List = Cells = Leads Fage 23 0f 25 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources = Voltmeter a = Resistor 1 Resolution of measuring equipment: Yournotes = Voltmeter=0.1V Method 1,Setupa circuit with two cellsin series. They can be of any ve fixed resistor. Connect a voltmeter around the resistor 2. Record the voltage across the resistor, as the resistoris the only ‘age but preferablylow(eg.5V) witha component this willbe the potential difference supplied by the cells, ‘Swap at least one of the cells to onewitha higher voltage Record the reading on the voltmeter again Repeat this for 3-5 voltage readings forthe resistor Set upacircuitnow with the two cellsin parallel. Still, connect a voltmeter around the resistor Record the voltage across the resistor Replace the batteries with two batteries witha different voltage, stillin parallel. hey both must have the same voltage 9. Repeat the experiment for3-5 voltage readings for the resistor of Results Analy: = The expected combined potential difference (p.d) for each battery combinationis calculated by the following) = Inseries: Combined [Link] the sum of theirindividualvoltages Vyotal= Vi + V2 +. Vpforn sources of e.m.t = Inparallet: Combined [Link] the same asthe [Link] each battery = Compare the results of the [Link] the resistor tots expected combined p.d = Inparallel, the resistor willhave the same [Link] the batteries because their terminals are at the same point. Therefore, the potential between those two points are stilthe same. = The 2batteries connectedin parallel should not be different voltages = The onewith the higher voltage wil discharge into the one of lower untilthey are equal which can cause wires to be burnt, creating sparks when connecting the cells ‘= This can cause overheating and failure of both batteries Evaluating the Experiment ‘Systematic Errors: 1 Make sure the voltmater starts from 0, to avoidazero error RandomErrors: Page 240f25 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources ‘The intemal resistance of the cells will affect the reading on the voltmeter, so the p.d calculated may 0 not be exactly as predicted Ifthe circuits not disconnected between each reading, the resistance of the components could be Yournotes affected by the temperature riseinthe components Repeat readings overa wide range of voltages willroduce amore reliable result Safety Considerations ‘When theres @high current, anda thin wire, the wire willbecome very hot. Make sure neverto touch the wire directly when the circuitis switched on Switch off the power supply ight away f you smell burning Make sure there areno liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electricalequlpment The components will gethot especially athigher [Link] careful when, handling them, Disconnect the power supplyin between readings to avoid the components heating up too much Page 25 of 25 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4.2.3 Investigating Electrical Characteristics of Components Investigating Electrical Characteristics of Components ‘Aim of the Experiment = Theaim of the experiments to investigate electrical characteristics for arange of ohmic and non- ‘ohmic components = These include a fxed resistor, lamp and diode Variables: 1 Independent variable = Potential difference, V = Dependent variable = Current. = Controlvariables: = Emsof the powersupply *= Use of the same equipment eg. wires, diodes Equipment List Tm co To measure the current through the circuit. To measure the potential difference through the electrical component. Variable —_| To vary the potential difference through the electrical components Resistor Voltage To provide the potential difference to the electrical components, Supply Fixed To measure the IV characteristic (ohmic) Resistor Filament | To measure the |-V characteristic (non-ohmic) Page 10 of 35. (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ld, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Resolution of measuring equipment: 1 Variable resistor = 0.0050. = Voltmeter=0.1V = Ammeter=0.018 Method VOLTAGE SUPPLY ‘AMMETER| 4) AVOLTMETER v ia FIXED ay VARIABLE: RESISTOR Circuit diagram of the apparatus set up. The fxed resistor will be replaced by a filament lamp and diode 1 2. Set up the circultas shownwith the fixed resistor Vary the voltage across the component by changing the resistance of the variable resistor, using a wide range of voltages (oatween 8-10 readings). Check the appropriate voltage reading on the voltmeter For each voltage, record the value of the current from the ammeter 3 times and calculate the average current Increase the voltage furtherin steps of 0.5 Vand repeat steps? and 3 Make sure to switch off the circuit in between readings to prevent heating of the component andwires Reverse the terminals of the power supply and take readings for the negative voltage (and therefore negative current) Replace the fixed resistor with the flament lamp, then the diode, repeating the experiment for each Anexample of asuitable table might looklie this: Paget of 35. (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources CURRENT | CURRENT | CURRENT | AVERAGE 4 W/a 127A 13/A CURRENT 1/A Your notes VOLTAGE /V 40 15 2.0 25 3.0 35 40 Analysis of Results = Plot graph of average current against voltage (an/-V graph) for each component 1 Ifthe LV graphis a straightline, isan ohmle conductor. Thisis expected from the fedresistor = Thismeansit obeys Ohm's Law: V=IR 1 Ifthe LV graphis a cune, itis anon-ohmie conductor. This is expected fromthe filament lamp and diode = Compare the results from the graphs obtained to the known I-V graphs for the resistor, filament lamp and diode. These should look lke’ Page 1201 35 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources 3.2.3 Acceleration & Free Fall 4 Your notes Acceleration g of Free Fall = Theaccelerationof free [Link] definedas: ‘The acceleration of any object in response to the gravitational attraction between the Earth and the object 1 Any object released on the Earth will accelerate downwards to the centre of the Earth as long as there areno extemal forces acting onit = OnFarth, the acceleration of free falis equalto.g = 9.81ms-2 Pegel0ct3) (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources Determining g in the Laboratory 4 Aims of the Experiment Yournotes The overall aim of the experimentis to calculate the value of the acceleration due to gravity. 9 1 Thisis done by measuring the time it takes for a ball-bearing to falla certain distance, The acceleration is then calculated using an equation of motion Variables = Independent variable = height, = Dependent variable = time, t = Controlvariables: = Same steelball-bearing = Same electromagnet = Distance between ball-bearing and top of the glass tube Equipment List rary Metreruler | To measure the distance between the light gates Steel ‘To measure the distance and time taken to drop. The ball must be ball-bearing | made froma magnetic material (iron, steel etc.) Electromagnet | To drop the ball—bearing through the glass tube at specific height every time Twolight, To determine the time taken to drop a certain distance gates Timer ‘To measure the time taken for the ball to drop between the light~gates. The timer must be activated to start when the ball posses the first light gate and stop when it passes the second Tall clamp, Tohold the glass tube and electromagnet in Line with each other stond (retort stand) Glass tube To guide the ball bearing vertically downwards Cushion To stop the ball bearing from being damaged or damaging the surface when Landing Pagenict31 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources = Resolution of measuring equipment: = Metreruler=Imm = Timer=0.018 Method FIRST LIGHT, GLASS TUBE SECOND LIGHT) GATE CUSHION TO LAND Apparatus setup to measure the distance and time for the ball bearing to drop ‘This methods an example of the procedure for varying the height the ball-bearing falls and determining the time taken -thisis ust one possible relationship that can be tested 1. Setup the apparatus by attaching the electromagnet to the top of atall clamp stand. Donot switch on the currenttll everythingis set up 2. Place the glass tube directly underneath the electromagnet, leaving space forthe ball-bearing. Make suteit faces directly downwards andnot at an angle 3. Attach both light gates around the glass tube ata starting distance of around 10 em, 4, Measure this distance between the two light gates as the height, hwitha metre ruler 5. Place the cushion directly underneath the end of the glass tube to catch the ball-bearing when it falls. through Page ot (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources 6. Switch the current on the electromagnet and place the ball-bearing directly underneath soitis ao attractedtolt 7. Turn the current to the electromagnet off, The ball should drop. Yournotes 8. When the ball drops through the fst light gate, the timer starts 9. When the ball drops through the second light gate, the timerstops 10. Read the time on the timerandrecordthisastime, t LL Increase h (eg. by 5 cm) and repeat the experiment. At least 5-10 values forh should beused. 12, Repeat this method at least 3 times for each value of hand calculate an average t for each = Anexample of atable with some possible heights would look like this: Example Table of Results HEIGHT h/m | TIME t,/s | TIME t,/s | TIME t,/s | AVERAGE TIME t/s 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 of Results Analy: = The accelerationis found by using one of the SUVAT equations = The known quantities are = Displacements=h = Time take! 1 Initial velocityu=u * Accelerationa=g ' The following SUVAT equation canbe rearranged. Page 13 of 31 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources seutstoe 4 2 Your notes 25 = 2ut + at? 2s S=2u+at t Substituting inthe values and rearrangingit asa straightline equation gives: Pr igtea 7 rate 2u Comparing this to the equation of a straight ine: y =mx +e nytims") = Gradient, m: = ycintercept = 2u ims) Plota graph of the 2h/t against t Drawaline of best ft Calculate the gradient -this's the acceleration due to gravity g ‘Assess the uncertainties in the measurements of hand t, Carty out any calculations needed to determine the uncertaintying due to these 2h jing GRADIENT = 2u t/s Page of 31 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources The graph of 2h/t against t produces a straight-line graph where the accelerationis the gradient ao Evaluating the Experiment Your notes Systematic Errors: = Residue magnetism after the electromagnet is switched off may cause t tobe recorded aslongerthan itshouldbe Random Errors: = Large uncertainty inh fromusinga metre rule witha precision of Imm = Parallax error from reading h = The ball may not fall accurately down the centre of eachlight gate = Random errors are reduced through repeating the experiment foreach value of hatleast 3-5 times andfinding an averagetime, t Safety Considerations 1 The electromagnetic requires current Care must be taken tonot have any water nearit, = Toreduce the riskof electrocution, only switchon the current to the electromagnet once: everythingis set up = Acushionorasoft surface must be used to catch the ball-bearing soit doesn'troll off /damage the surface 1 The tall clamp stand needs tobe attached to a surfacewitha G clamp so it staysrigid Pages of 31 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources 2.1.4 Labelling Graphs & Tables 4 Yournotes Graph & Table Labelling Conventions "= There are specife conventions for labelling physical quantities in columns of data in tables andon grephaxes Table Conventions = Whenlabelling table headings, the symbolis presented frst, then a forward slash and the unit, = e.g, Current withunit Amps-1/ A = The general convention for tables: = The independent variable goes in the column ontheleft = The dependent variable goes in the column on the right + Sometimes, powers of tens are also included with the unit, suchastt/ «1028 = This moans the colurnn of data has been divided by 100 to save repeating ots of zerosin he table + Ifthe values oftinthe table or axes onthe graph are 1,2 and 3, the actual values obtained fort are 100s,200sand300s = Any processed data(eg, averages) should bein columns to the farright ‘= Allunits should be in the table headings, notin the body = Any aw data should be recordedito the resolution of the measuring instrument * Alldata of the same type must be recordedto the same number of decimal places 1 Anexample table and graphis shown below for a Velocity vTime graph: SYMBOL UNIT 6.0 oO 25 + 4.0 2 41.0 40 S 2.0 2.0 5.5 1A INDEPENDENT V \(oerenoer Q 5 ra a VARIABLE VARIABLE ” ” us Pageléct's (©2015-2024 Save My \Lid, -RevisionNotes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources The convention forlabeling tables and graphs ao Graph Conventions Your notes = Whenlabelling graphs: 1 Theindependent variable shouldbe plotted on the x-axis, 1» The dependent variable shouldbe plotted on the y-ax's = Each axis should be labelled with the quantity and unit, separated by a forward slash just lk headings = The graph must cover over 75% of the space provided = Thismeanseither axis doesnot always have to start at ‘= The only exception to ths is that ay-intercept must alwaysbbe read from an axis that starts atx= * suitable scale must be used for each axis to provide this insteps of 1,2, 5 ora multiple of 10) = When calculating @ gradient, drawa triangle that covers at least 75% of the datapoints * Similarto table headings, powers of tens may also be included with the unit on the axes labels, such as t 7102s = The data points should be made with a small sharp pencil The general conventionis to put an ‘x’ instead of a dot, as this s clearer to see on grach paper = Aline of best ft should have roughly equal points on either side and shouldnt be forced through the origin 1 Itmust also be thin ine thatis clear, drawnusing a straight edge or ruler Page of 18 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources TITLE: A GRAPH TO SHOW HOW (DEPENDENT VARIABLE) DEPENDS ON (INDEPENDENT VARIABLE) LABELLING AXES: QUANTITY / UNIT. EXTENSION / m 400 150 2.00 FORCE / N LABELLING AXES (NOTE): IF THE FORCES HAD ALL BEEN KILONEWTONS, THEN THE AXIS LABEL MIGHT READ ‘FORCE /40°N* 250 3.00 3.50 POINTS: © SMALL SHARP PENCIL *NO BLOBS *LESS THAN 4/2 ‘A_SQUARE THICK ‘An example of a correctly labelled and plotted graph QO ExamTip (One way to remember which axisis labelled with theindependent and dependent variable'is that the word independent isa longer word and therefore ‘sinks' to the bottom axis (the xaxis) Page 18018 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4.9.10 Determining the Speed of Soundin Air in a Resonance Tube Determining the Speed of Sound in Air in a Resonance Tube Aims of the Experiment = The aimor the experimentis calculate the speed of sound n air using atuning fork and a tube of water Variables: = Independent variable = Airlevelin the tube = Dependent variable = Length of the air columnin the tube where resonance occurs, L = Controlvariables: = Temperature of the water = Frequency of the tuning fork Equipment List Tey ier Tuning fork with known | To create the sound wave frequency ‘Small hammer To hit the tuning fork Tube openatbothends | Tocreate a resonant sound wave inside Clamp stand and boss. To hold the tube Water Toreduce the column of air in the tube Rubber band or marker pen | To mark the Length of the tube at which resonance occurs Cylindrical beaker To hold the water Method Page S0of 58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams 1d. Revision Notes, Topic Questions, 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Yournotes TUNING FORK u LENGTH OF AIR_IN_ TUBE: CLAMP STAND, AND BOSS CYLINDRICAL BEAKER Apparatus setup to measure the speed of soundina column of air 1 Setup the equipment and fillup the beakerhalfway with water 2. Place the tube inside the beaker, so the water comes up a quarter of the way. The side of the tube inthe wateractsasa closed-end 3. Hold the tuning fork above the open endof the tube and strike it ightly with the small hammer 4. Slowly lower the tube into the water by loosening the clamp until the intensity of sound is amplified 5. When resonance (loudest sound)is heard, mark the water level witha rubber band or marker pen. RecordthisasLy 6, Then, lower the water further unti the next point of resonance isheard and markit, Record this as L2 7. Keep goingin this manner as far as possible Analysis of Results Page slot 58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ld, Revision Notes, Topic Questions,4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources =>— =——- 4 Yournotes ‘Standing waves in the air columns are used to calculate the wavelength of the sound waves Resonance should occur when the open tubelength is equaltoA/4,3A/4and 5/4 1» Thelouness of the sound in the tube fromthe forkwillbbe small at thenode of the sound wave 1 The sound willbe the loudest at the antinode of the sound wave AtLithewavelengthisa/4 AtLathewavelengthis 31/4 La-ba=as2 Therefore, the wavelength of the sound is equalto: Ae 2le-L) ‘Another value of A could also be found from the distance between Lsand L2andameanwavelength canbe calculated Fromthe wave equation: Page520f58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources The speedof the sound wave, v, can found from \e product of the frequency fof the tuning forkand ao the wavelength calculated Yournotes Evaluating the Experiment systemati ors: = The tuning fork should be struck at the same place above the tube each time: = The tuning fork should be struck with the same force each time RandomErrors: = Make sure the markeris. thin ine to get amore accurate reading of the waterlevel = Submerge the tube into the water slowly, so the antinade of the sound wave (loudest sound)is not missed = Repeat the experiment to record more reliable readings, since the point where the sound is the loudest is subjective Using 2 resonance tube witha scale will lp account for error when measuring the length of the air columnwithinit Safety Considerations = Don't let the tuning fork touch the tube, since the vibrations could break or crackit ‘= Make sure the wateris at room temperature, and not toohot or cold = Make sureno electrical equioment isnear the water, otherwise they couldbe damaged Page530f58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams oad to won [Link] formoreawesome resources 4.9.6 Determining the Wavelength of Light Determining the Wavelength of Light Equipment List est ior Laser To use as a source of monochromatic Light Single Slit To focus the Laser beam onto the double slit (optional) Double Slit To ditfract the beats into two sources of coherent light Diffraction To diffract the beam into multiple sources of coherent light Grating Metre ruler To measure the distance between the slits and the screen (D) Vernier Caltipers | To measure the fringe width (w) and slit separation (if not quoted on double stit) Retort Stand | To support the Laser and slits at the same height White Screen | To project the interference pattern on to Set Square To ensure all components are aligned to the normal perfectly = Resolution of measuring equipment = Metre ruler=1mm = Vernier Callipers = 0.01 mm Young's Double-Slit Experiment ‘The overallaim of this experimentis to investigate the relationship between the distance between the slits and the screen, D, and the fringe width, w = Independent variable = Fringe width, w = Dependent variable = Distance between the sits and the screen, D = Controlvariables Page29 of 58 ©2015-2024 Save My Exams 1d. Revision Notes, Topic Questions, 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources = Laserwavelength.A a 1 Slitseperation, s Yournotes Method FRINGE PATTERN, FRINGE WIDTH W DOUBLE SLIT SEPARATION S SCREEN LASER, WAVELENGT! SINGLE suT The setup of apparatus required to measure the fringe width w for different values of D 1. Setup the apparatus by fixing the laser and the sits to @retort stand and place the screen so that Dis 0.5m, [Link] the metre ler 2. Darken the room and turn onthe laser 3. Measure from the central inge across many fringes using the vernier callipers and divide by the number of fringe widths to find the fringe width, w_ 4. Increase the distance D by 0.1m and repeat the procedure, increasing t by 0.1m each timeup to around1.5m 5. Repeat the experiment twice more and calculate and record the mean fringe width w for each distance D = Anexample table might look ike this: Page 50 of 58 (© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. Revision Notes, Topic Qu4, SaveMyExams Hood tow sovenoxamns com formore awesomeresources DISTANCE BETWEEN SLITS AND SCREEN 4st READING | 2nd READING 4 Yournotes FRINGE WIDTH W/m 3rd READING | MEAN Analysing the Results 1 The fringe spacing equationis given by: aD w=— s = Where! 1 w= the distance between each fringe (m) = A=the wavelength of thelaserlight (m) = D=the distance between the slit and the screen (m) = s=the slit separation (m) = Comparing this to the equation ofa straightline:y = mx. = y=wim) = x=D(m) = Gradient =A/s(unitless) = Plota graph of wagainst D and drawaline of best ht Page Slot 58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources = The wavelength of the laserlightis equal to the gradient multiplied by the slit separation ao radient xs. Yournotes GRADIENT A W/m 8 A=S * GRADIENT D/m Interference by a Diffraction Grating The overall aim of this experiment sto calculate the wavelength of the laser light using a diffraction grating 1 Independent variable = Distance between maxima, h = Dependent variable = The angle between the normaland each order, 8, (where n=1,2, 3etc) = Controlvariables ‘Distance between the slits and the screen, D = Laserwavelengtha = slit separation, Method Page320f58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources [ORDERS OF THE DIFFRACTION PATTERN’ 4 Yournotes h tn8=D, [SCREEN n=2 n=4 h n=0 nn DIFFRACTION GRATING a The setup of apparatus required to measure the distance between maxima hat different angles 0 Place the laser on aretort stand and the diffraction gratingin front of it Use a set square to ensure the beam passes through the atating at normalincidence and meets the screen perpendicularly Set the distance Dlsetween the grating and the screen tobe 1.0 musing ametre ruler Darken the room and tum on he laser Identify the zero-order maximum (the centralbeam) Measure the distance h to the nearest two first-order maxima (le, n=1,n=2)usinga verniercalliper Calculate the mean of these two values Measure distance h forincreasing orders Repeat witha ditfraction grating witha different number of slitspermm = Anexample table might look like this: Page330f58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources DISTANCE BETWEEN MAXIMA| ANGLE BETWEEN MAXIMA DIFFRACTION, ORDER, 4st READING | 2nd READING Analysing the Results The diffraction grating equationis givenby ma=dsin® = Where: = n= the order of the diffraction pattern = A=the wavelength of thelaser light (mn) = d=the distance betweenthe slits (mn) 1 =the angle between the normal andthe maxima 1 The distance between the siitsis equal to zie = Where = N=thenumber of sits permetre (m") 1 Since the angles not small, it must be calculated using trigonometry with the measurements forthe distance between maxima, h, and the distance between the slits and the screen, D tono=4 o=t (4) an@=— = >) @= tant (— D D + Caleulateameandvalue foreach order Pages4of 58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Calculate amean value for the wavelength of the laserlight and compare the value with the accepted ao wavelength = Thisis usually 635 nm fora standard school red laser, Yournotes Evaluating the Experiments Systematic errors: = Ensure the use of the set square to avoid parallax errorin the measurement of the fringe width 1 Using @ grating with morelines per mm willresult in greater values of h This lowersits percentage uncertainty Random errors: = The fringe spacing canbe subjective depending onitsintensity onthe screen, therefore, take multiple. measurements of wandh (between 3-8) and find the average = Usea Vernier scale to record distances wand h to reduce percentage uncertainty = Reduce the uncertainty in wand h by measuring across allvisible fringes and dividing by the number of fringes = Increase the grating to screen distance D to increase the fringe separation (although this may decrease the intensity of light reaching the screen) = Conduct the experiment ina darkened room, sothe fringes are clear Safety Considerations 1 Lasersshould be Class 2 and haveamaximum output of ne more than mW = Donotallowlaser beamsto shine into anyone's eyes = Remove reflective surfaces from the room to ensure no laser lights reflected into anyone's eyes Page350f58 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources Investigating Refraction & Total Internal Reflection ‘Aims of the Experiment = The simot the experiments to calculate the refractive index ot atransparent semi-circularblock Variables: 1 Independent variable = Angle of incidence, 6, = Dependent variable = Angle of refraction, 82 = Controlvariables: ' Size of the semi-circularblock 1 Intensity of light Equipment List ETL aTy ees Ray / light box | To create a thin beam of Light Semi-circular glass block Torefract the light Rectangular Torefract the light glass block White paper To clearly draw the incident and refracted light rays Protractor To change the angle of incidence of the light Pencil To trace the light rays and draw the normal Ruler To draw straight lines for the traced light rays 1 Resolution of measuring equipment = Ruler=1mm = Protractor=1" Pege70f20 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Method ao Yournotes ANGLE OF INCIDENCE SINGLE SLIT! ANGLE OF REFRACTION Apparatus set up to measure the effects of refraction through a semi-circular block 1. Place the semi-circular block on top of the protractor with the centre of ts diameter aligned with 0° on the protractor 2, Direct the light from the lightbox towards this 0° and draw a dotted line perpendicular to the long edge of the [Link] the normal 53. Using the pencil and ruler, trace the ray entering the block and leaving 4. Repeat this, moving the ray around every 10° up to 80. Thisis the angle ofincidence, 8, 5. The angle of the ray leaving the block from the normalis the angle of refraction, 8,, The block should preferably be removed to measure this accurately [Link] the angle at which the angle of refractionis 90°, (the ray leaves along the straight boundary of the block) just before itis reflected. Thisis the criticalangle 7. Repeat the experiment for the rectangular glass block = Anexample table of results would look tke this: Page of 20 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Example table of results Analysis of Results 1 The refractive indexof the blocksis calculated using Snell's Law: nysin8;=n2 sin. 1» Since mis the refractive index ofthe first material, this is sir and hence equalto1 = Therefore, the refractive index of the blocks nis found using the equation: sin(@1) sin(@2) = Therefore the gradient of the graph of sin 2 against sin isthe refractive indexn ' Thecriticalangle, C, can then be calculatedusing the equation 1 sin(C) = = PageSot20 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources 10 4 Your notes O8 , ' 06 i sind, _ REFRACTIVE GRADIENT = INDEX 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 sin, Example graph of results to measure the refractive index Evaluating the Experiment ‘Systematic Errors: = The lines should be traced from the centre of the light rays each time Random Errors: = Usea pencil witha sharp tip to draw the lines on the paper accurately for each angle ‘= The light rom the lightbox will be sightly blurry and dispersed, which gives a subjective reading for the angle = Using a concentrate laser light willproduce more defined rays so there is less uncertainty when tracing the lines ‘= Repeat the experiment and find an average reading of each angle of refraction Safety Considerations = Donot shine the light from the ray boxin eyes asit can damage youreyes Fage10.ct20 ©2015-2024 Save My Exams. 1d, - Revision Notes, opie Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources Lasers can permanently damage your eyesight therefore, wear laser safety goggles ao Don’t shine the laser at reflective surfaces Display alaser warning signon the door Yournotes Never shine the laserataperson Make sure the glass blocks are kept away from the edge of the surface of atable, as thay could be damaged and crackif they fall Pegetiot20 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE / V OF RESISTOR 4 Yournotes CALIBRATION CURVE TO FIND AN UNKNOWN! LIGHT INTENSITY FOR ‘A PARTICULAR P.D. LIGHT INTENSITY / LUX LOR calibration curve 1 The resistance of the LDR and thermistor decreases with the increase in ight intensity and temperature respectively = Ohm's Law states that the current between two pointss cirectly proportional to the potential difference across those points = Since R= V/I, this means the resistance between those pointsis constant, and anon-ohmic device doesn't obey ohm’s law = The potential difference provided by the cellis shared between the resistor and the non-chmic device (the LDR) = Therefore, a greater proportion of voltage is shared across the resistor as the resistance of t non-chmic device decreases Investigating a Thermistor Circuit Aims of the Experiment The overall aim of the experimentis to calibrate a potential divider circuit usinga thermistor to find an unknown temperatureVariables 1» Independent variable = Temperature, (°C) = Dependent variable = Potential difference, V(V) = Controlvariables: = Em of the powersupply EquipmentList Pages of 18 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4 ere eS Yournotes Celt To provide the e.m.f. to the circuit Thermistor | The sensory resistor which decreases its resistance with increasing temperature Resistor To measure the potential difference across Voltmeter | Torecord the potential difference across the resistor lee To cool the temperature of the water Kettle Toboil water Thermometer | Tomeasure the temperature of the water (and thermistor) Beaker To hold the water in which the thermistor will be submerged in = Resolution of measuring equioment: = Voltmeter=1mV = Thermometer=1°C Method Page bof 18 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources W) Thermistor circult apparatus 1 Replace the LDRin the circuit with a waterproof thermistor. Rather than light intensity being altered, itis now the temperature that must be altered [Link] by placing the thermistor ina beaker fled with bolling water rom the kettle 3. Record the potential difference across the resistor as before, taking readings of the voltage forevery 5*Cdecrease 4..s the temperature falls to room tempe’ asmuchas possible 2, placeice inthe beaker to furtherlowerthe temperature Analysing the Results ‘= Similarto the LDR, plota graph of potential difference (V) against temperature (in) and drawaline of best fit * Using the calibration curve, find the corresponding temperature to a particular potential dtference Paget7 of 18 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE / V OF RESISTOR 4 Yournotes CALIBRATION CURVE TO FIND AN UNKNOWN! TEMPERATURE FOR ‘A PARTICULAR P.D. TEMPERATURE /°C Thermistor calibration curve Evaluating the Experiment ‘Systematic Errors: 1 Make sure the voltmater and digital ight sensor start at to avoid azero error Random Errors: = Repeating measurements for the potential difference will educe random errors 1 Toincrease the accuracy of the calibration curve, take as many readings as possible over a wide range sothat thereare as many datapoints as possible = The temperature of the thermistoris assumed to be the same as the temperature of the water = Make sure the water is stirred thoroughly to make sure its temperatureis even Safety Considerations = Thisis avery safe experiment, however, electrical components can get hot when used fora long period = Switch off the power supply right away'f burning is smelled = Make sure there areno liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electricalequipment = Be carefulnot to be scalded by boiling water by notletting it splash ' Since the lamp can become very bright, do notlook directly into it as this will damage your vision = Be carefulnot to trip when theroomis dark, Keep allbelongings under desks to avoid this Page 8 of 18 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4.4.3 Determining Internal Resistance Determining Internal Resistance Aims of the Experiment ‘The overallaim of the experiment isto investigate the relationship between e.m. and intemal resistance by ‘measuring the variation of currant and voltage usinga variable resistor Variables 1 Independent variable = resistance, R(O) = Dependent variable = voltage, V(V) & current, (A) = Controlvariables: = Em,fofthecell ‘= Internalresistance of the cell EquipmentList NT ht 4.5V Cell To provide an e.m.f. to the circuit Resistor Unknown resistance — to act as internal resistance 400. Variable | To change the values of current and voltag Resistor the circuit Voltmeter O-2 V range — to measure voltage Ammeter 0-200 mA range — to measure current Wires At least 6 leads — to make electrical connections Switch To open between readings to not run down the battery Page70f21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams 1d, -Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Resolution of measuring equipment: ao = Voltmeter=1mV = Ammeter=0.1mA Yournotes Method [SI 1. The celland the resistor, labelled, should be connectedin series and considered to bea single cell 2. With the switch open, record the reading Von the voltmeter 3. Set the variable resistor to its maximum value, close the switch and record Vand the reading /onthe ammeter - make sure to open the switch betweenreadings 4, Naty the resistance of the variable resistor up to @ minimum of 8-10 readings and record values for V and ifor each resistance. Ensure to take readings for the whole range of the variable resistor = Anexample of asuitable table might looklike this: Pages of21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources /SNOLTMETER READING AMMETER READING 4st READING | 2nd READING| 3rd READING] MEAN RESISTANCE OF VARIABLE! RESISTOR R/O. | v/v | ma | V/V | ma | vv | mA | VZV | 17m 40 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Analysing the Results = The selationship between e.m.t. andinternalresistance is given by e=1(R40) = Where! = e=electromotive force (vy) surrent (A) sistance of theloadin the circuit (A) = r=internal esistance of the cell(Q) = Thiscanbe simplitiedinto the form esIR+ir=Velr = Rearranging this equation for V: Ve-ree Page of 21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Hood tow sovenoxamns com formore awesomeresources this to the equation of a straight line: y=mx +e ao Yournotes = Y-intercept=«(V) 1. Plota graph of Vagainst land drawaline of best ft 2. Measure the gradient of the graph and compare it with the manufacturer's value of the resistor 3. The y-intercept willbe the [Link] the gradient will be the negative internal resistance’ v/v SPADE yy a VA Evaluating the Experiment Systemati costo take each pairof readings ry or cell from changing during the experiment = Only close the switch foras longasi = Thiswillprevent the internal resistance of the bat Random Errors: = Only use fairly new cells otherwise the em, and interalresistance of run-down batteries can vary during the experiment = Wait forthe reading on the voltmeter and ammeterto stabilise (stop fluctuating) before recording the values '= Take multiple repeat readings (at least 3) for each voltage and current and calculate ameanto reduce random errors * Thisis avery safe experiment, however, electrical components can get hot when used fora long period Page 10 of 21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 1" Switch off the power supply right awayit burnings smelled ao = Make sure there aren liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electrical equipment Yournotes @ Worked example In an experiment, a student uses a variable resistor as an externalload. The current flowing through the circuitis measured witha suitable miliammeter and the potential difference across the variable resistoris measured with a voltmeter for arange of resistance values. The data collected was as follows AAV TN 4.60 0.0 430 BA 444 20.0 0.96 28.2 0.80 36.2 0.65 M5 0.49 48.8 0.38 53.4 0.23 60.3 0.40 66.0 Plota graph of these resultsand determine the [Link]. and the internal resistance directly from the: graph. ‘Step 1: Plot the data on a graph of V against / and draw alline of best fit Page lof 21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 48 16 44 42 08 06 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE V/V 0.4 0.2 ° 40 20 30 40 50 60 70 CURRENT I/mA, ‘Step 2: Draw the largest triangle possible in order to calculate the gradient Page t20f21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 48 4 Yournotes 16 44 42 46 - 0.1945 08 06 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE V/V 0.4 0.2 ° 40 20 30 40 50 60 70 CURRENT I/mA, Gradient 4% - -26=0 radient = > = —-———_ adtent = Ay ~ 66x 10-3 ‘Step 3: Determine the e.m.t. and the internal resistance from the graph -22.79 (3 s.f.) 1» From this equation: = Gradient = -r(0) = Y-intercept=E() = Therefore: 1 Internalresistance,r=22.70 © Emf£=160V Pagei3of 21 (©2015-2025 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4.2.6 Determining the Resistivity of a Metal Determining the Resistivity of a Metal Aims of the Experiment = Theaimor the experimentis to determine the resistivity of a2metre constantan wire Variables: = Independent variable = Length, L, of the wire (m) = Dependent variable = The current, through the wire (A) = Controlvariables: = Voltage through the wire = The material the wireis made from Equipment List eras Ammeter To determine the current through the wire Voltmeter To determine the voltage across the wire 2.0 mof constantan | To calculate its resistivity wire (22-36 swa) Flying lead Awire with a crocodile clip at one end to allow connection at any point along the test wire Metre ruler To measure the length of the wire Micrometer To measure the diameter of the wire Power supply To provide the voltage through the wire Resolution of measuring equipment = Metre ruler=Tmm = Micrometer screw gauge = 0.01mm = Voltmeter=0.1V Page 25 of 35 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams 1d. Revision Notes, Topic Questions, 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources = Ammeter=0.014 Method POWER SUPPLY o e FLYING LEAD LENGTH TEST WIRE RULER, :L. Measure the diameter of the constantan wire using a micrometer. The measurement shouldbe taken between 5-10 times randomly along the wire. Calculate the mean diameter from these values 2. Setup the equipment so the wire is taped or clamped to the ruler with one end of the circuit attached to the wire where the rulerreads 0, The ammeteris connectedin series and the voltmeter in parallel to thewire 3. Attach the flying lead to the test wire at 0.25 mand set the power supply ata voltage of 6.0. Check. that thisis the voltage through the wire on the voltmeter 4,Read andrecord the current from the ammeter, then switch off the currentimmedi reading (the short wire will get very hot) 5. Vary the distance between the fixed end of the wire and the fiying lead in 0.25 mintervals (0.25 m, 0.50 1m, 0.75 etc.) until the full length of the 2.0 m wire. The originallength and the intervals canbe changed (e.g startat 0.1 mandincrease in 0.1 mintervals), slong as there are 8-10 readings [Link] the current for each length at least 3 times and calculate an average current, [Link] eachlength, calculate the average resistance of the length of the wire using the equation lyafterthe Where Vis the voltage and lis the average current through the wire for thatlength = Anexample of a table of results might lookike this: Page 26 of 35 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4 RESISTANCE R/O. Yournotes LENGTH OF WIRE /rm AVERAGE, CURRENT 1,/A| CURRENT 1,/A| CURRENT 1,/A] CURRENT 7A 0.25 050 078 4.00 125 4150 178 2.00 Analysis of Results = The resistivity, p, of the wires equal to = Where: = p=resistivity (am) + Reresistance (0) + Azcross-sectional area of the wire (m®) length of wire(m) = Rearranging for the resistance, R: The resistivity can therefore be calculated from the gradient of the resistance against length graph, multiplied by the cross-sectionalareaof the wire Page27 of 35. (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Calculate the cross-sectionalarea,A, of the wire ao 2 nd’ Yournotes Cross-sectional area A =~ 2, Plota graph of thelength of the wire, L, against the average resistance of thewire, R3. Drawaline of best, fit and calculate the gradient of this graph4, Calculate the resistivity p by multiplying the gradient by the cross-sectionalarea A p = gradient « A RESISTANCE R/O JR GRADIENT LENGTH L/m Evaluating the Experiment Systematic Errors: 1 The endof the wire thats attached to the circuit (not the flying lead) must start at O on the ruler = Otherwise, this could cause azero errorin your measurements of the length RandomErrors: = Only allow small currents to flow through the wire = The resistivity of a material depends on its temperature. The current flowing through the wire wil cause its temperature to increase and affect its resistance and resistivity. Therefore the temperature iskept constant and low by small currents = The current should be switched off between readings so its temperature doesn't change its resistance = Make at least 5-10 measurements of the diameter of the wire with the micrometer screw gauge and calculate an average diameterto reduce random errors in the reading Page28 of 35 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams = When there's ahigh current, anda thin wire, the wire willbecome very hot = Make surenever to touch the wire directly when the circuits switched on Switch off the power supply right awayif burning is smelled 1 Make sure there areno liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electricalequipment @ Worked example Astudent wants to find the resistivity of a constantanwie. They set up the experiment by attaching one end of thewire to a circuit with a 6.0 V battery and the other witha flying lead and measure the length with a ruler Attaching the flying lead onto the wire at different lengths, they obtain the following table of results: Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources ea aot a TT eos L7m W/A L/A1,/K Current 17A R/O. 0.25 434 134 1.35 0.50 0.85 085 | 083 0.75 04 os1 | 050 4.00 035 | 036 | 0.35 4.25 030 | 031 | 031 1.50 027 | 027 | 0.27 1.75 023 | o21 | 0.24 2.00 0.18 017 | 0.18 The following additionaldata forthe wireis: PNT) Cretan 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.19 0.9 Calculate the resistivity of the wire. ‘Step: Complete the average current and resistance columns inthe table (©2015-2024 Save My Exams. 1d, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Page 29 of 354, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 1 Theresistanceis calculatedusing the equation v oe TTY Reed wa) WAN ZN ZN TEL aes 0.25 434 134 4135 434 AAs 0.50 0.85 0.85 0.83 0.84 7M 0.75 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.51 “4.76 4.00 0.35 0.36 0.35 0.35 47.44 4.25 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 19,35 4.50 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 22.22 4.75 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.22 27.27 2.00 0.48 0.17 0.48 0.48 33.33 ‘Step 2: Calculate the cross-sectionalarea of the wire from the diameter = Theaverage diameteris 0.191 mm =0.191 10-3 m = The cross-sectional areais equal to n(0.191 «10 287 « 10% m? Step 3:Plota graph of the lengthL against theresistanceR (©2015-2024 Save My Exams. 1d, -Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers Page 30 of 35 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 40.00 of Yournotes 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 RESISTANCE /O. 15.00 40.00 5.00 0.00 ° 05 4.0 45 2.0 25 LENGTH /m ‘Step 4: Calculate the gradient of the graph Page Slot 35 © 2015-2024 Save My Exams, [sd Revision Notes, Topic Qu4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 40.00 4 Yournotes 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 RESISTANCE /O. 15.00 40.00 5.00 0.00 ° 05 4.0 45 2.0 25 LENGTH /m AR _ p _ 27.00-5.00 _ |. 1 AL A 17-0300 0 ™ ‘Step 5: Calculate the resistivity of the wire p = gradient A = 15.71 x (2.87x 1078) = 4.51 107-7 Om Page 320135 © 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources Investigating Force-Extension Characteristics Aims of the Experiment ‘The aim of this experimentis to investigat te the relationship between force and extension forthree: materials: metal springs, rubber bands and polythene strips Variables 1 Independent variable = Force /Load(N) = Dependent variable = Extension (m) Equipment List NTT trey Extendable steel springs Rubber bands Polythene strips Materials to use to investigate how much extension ‘occurs when masses are attached to each slotted masses Set square Clamp stand, clamp & To suspend the materials from and to hold the metre bos: ruler in place G-clamp To secure the clamp stand to the bench or table Metre ruler To measure the extension of each material Mass hanger and 400g To provide the force which witl lead to an extension To ensure the ruler is perpendicular to the table Fiducial Marker To indicate the position of the original Length of the materials 1 Resolution of measuring equipment = Metreruler=1mm Method (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers Paget2ct 49 4 Yournotes4, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources 4 Yournotes [SPRING ORIGINAL, LENGTH EXTENSION Experimental set-up for investigating force-extension characteristics of a metal spring 1 Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Hang a spring from the clamp and boss and secureit so that itwillnot fall off 2. Secure the metre rule vertically to the clamp, using the set square to ensureitis straight ang placeit adjacent to the spring 3. Record the [Link] reading at the bottom of the spring and place a fiducial marker on this point. This ists originallength before any masses are hanging fromit noload) 4, Hang a mass hanger from the bottom of the spring, Record the new metre rule reading, the number of ‘masses and the extension of the spring [Link] another mass. Record the new metre rule reading, the number of masses, and the total extension of the spring fromits original length [Link] this untila‘ter the spring has become permanently stretched 7. Repeat the experiment for the rubber band and the polythene strip = Anexample table might look like this: PageT3ct 49 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources 4 Yournotes EXTENSION = METRE RULE READING - ORIGINAL LENGTH, LOAD = NUMBER OF MASSES » mg wwuween oF Masses | Loan,tnn | METRE RULE | TOTAL EXTENSION 4 2 3 4 5 6 Analysing the Results = According to Hooke’s Law: = Comparing this to the equation ofa straight-line, y= mx = y=Load/force, F = x=Extension,x = Gradient = Force constant, k = Plota graph of the load applied on the horizontalaxis and the extension of the spring on the verticalaxis and drawa line of best fit The gradient of the linear partwill be equal to the force constant, k = Make sure to measure the gradient of the straight section of the line only, as this is within the elasticlimit of the material Evaluating the Experiment ‘Systematic errors: 1 Reduce parallax errorby reading the metre ruler at eye-level = Use a set square to make sure the ruleris straight and perpendicular to the bench or table = Usea fiducial marker to mark the original position of the material Pagel4ct 49 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers4, SaveMyExams Head to vin [Link] formore awesome resources Random eer: , + Ensure the materialis stationary before a readingis made Your notes = Repeat the experiment several times and calculate an average Safety Precautions ‘= When stretching materials, thereis a danger that they may snap under the high tension = Eyeprotection shouldbe warn = Aboxorlanding mat should be placed below the hangerto catch the weight it falls = Make sure to not stand directly underneath the hanging masses Fagetsct 49 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past PapersInvestigating Circular Motion 4 Yournotes Investigating Circular Motion Equipment & Method * Circular motion can be investigated using the following setup: = Tiea bung of massm, toa piece of string, which sitshorizontally 1 Threadit thougha glass tube and apaperclip, which sits vertically ‘= Atthe other end of the string an abject with mass Mis suspended vertically (amass orsomewashersare commonly used) 1 Thisweight creates constant tension in the string and provides the centripetal force = Thepaperclip acts as a marker; the speed of the rotationis adjusted unti the paperclip remains na fixed position ust below the glass tube = Thesstring is spun in ahorizontalcircle = Theperiod of the rotationis measured 1 The time taken for multiple rotations is recorded and repeated to reduce random errors = The experiment is repeated again using different distances between the mass and the glass tube (the radius of the circle) < ‘GLASS TUBE! |< — {PAPER CLIP| pa Sd WEIGHT (Mg) Explanation 4pSaveMyExams © 2026 Save My Exams, Lid. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 20= The weight force Mg exerted on the stringby the hangingmass M creates tension in the string = Thecentripetal force should be found to be approximately equallto this weight force = The angular velocity of the bung, mass m, canbe foundusing 2n ore + vee « @zanquarvevety eae" = T=time period of oscillation (s) = The centripetal force canbe calculated using F,= mor -entripetalforce (N) = m=massof bung (ka) © @=angularvelocity ads") radius of cil length of string between bung and glass tube (m) = Thecentripetal force should be found to be approximately equal to the weight of the hangingmass, M_ = Where: «= M ‘ass of the hanging mass providing the tensionin the string (kg) + =gravitationalfield strength (Nkg") = The investigation should show that as F'increases, the time period T increases, but the centripetal force F remains the same ce] Examiner Tips and Tricks nanon-experimental setting, you are expected to understand the physics of swinging amass ina vertical circle. However, this is difficult to measure in a practical setting so you would not be expected to carry aut the investigation. 4 Yournotes 4pSaveMyExams © 2026 Save My Exams, Lid. Get more and ace your exams at [Link]Inaverticalcircle: st = Asthe bung moves around the circle, the direetion of the tension willchange Yournotes continuously = The magnitude of the tension willalso vary continuously, reaching a maximum value at the bottom and a minimum value at the top = Thisis because the direction of the weight of the bung never changes, so the resultant force will vary depending on the position of the bung inthe circle = Atthe bottom of the citcle, the tension must overcome the weight, this can be writtenas: = Asaresult, the acceleration, andhence, the speed of the bung willbe faster at, the bottom = Atthe top of the circle, the tension and weight actin the same direction, this can bewrittenas: my? T min pS = Asaresult, the acceleration, and hence, the speed of the bung willbe slower at thetop Ifthe speedis too slow, the string will go slack, since the tension force cannot beneg: 4pSaveMyExams © 2026 Save My Exams, Lid. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 24, SaveMyExams Head to www [Link] formore awesome resources 3.3.7 Investigating Terminal Velocity 4 Your notes Terminal Velocity in Fluids Aims of the Experiment The terminal velocity of a ball bearing ina viscous fuid can be determined experimentally using a cylinder filled with a viscous liquid. The aim of this experiment is to calculate the terminal velocity of the mass asit falls through aviscous fluid. Variables 1 Independent variable = Distance between markers (m) = Dependent variable = Time to travel between markers (s) = Controlvariables ‘Use the same viscous fuid = Use the sameballbearing Equipment List Viscous liquid such s glycerol, | To provide a medium for the ball bearing to travel wallpaper paste or heavy oil | through. The more viscous the fluid, the easier the measurement of speed Tall glass measuring cylinder | To provide a suitable container to put the viscous Liquid in, The taller the container, more likely the ball will reach terminal velocity ‘Stand, clamp and boss To secure theruler and gloss container Elastic bands or marker pen | To mark set distances at which times are recorded Metre ruler To measire the distances between the markers ‘Steel ball bearings To drop into the viscous fluid to determine the ‘terminal velocity ‘Strong magnet To enable easy removal of the ball bearing from the lass container ‘Stopwatch To measure time intervals between the markers Page 34 0f37 (©2015-2024 Save My Exams Ltd, Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers