Drying and dehydration

FST 221
 Drying or Dehydration
• The terms “drying” and “dehydration” are inter-related terms used
to describe “the unit operations involved in removal of water by
evaporation or sublimation.”

• The two terms are generally used interchangeably but

• While DRYING refers broadly to the removal of moisture from

food under natural conditions.

• DEHYDRATION refers using mechanical dehydrators to remove

moisture close to bone dry condition.
• Can include air drying, sun drying, oven, etc.
• Involve methods using mechanical dehydrators
 Drying or Dehydration
• “DRYING and DEHYDRATION” means removal of
moisture by application of heat.
• Simultaneous heat and mass transfer

Removal of moisture increases the shelf life of the

fruit products.
• Reduce water activity: enzymatic activity and
growth of Mos is adversely affected.
• Residual moisture should not be more than:
(1) 6-8 % in vegetables
(2) 10-20 % in fruits
 Advantages
Principle of drying
and dehydration

1. Helps in food preservation by a reducing the water activity (aw).

This inhibits microbial growth and enzyme activity,
• but the processing temperature is usually insufficient to cause their inactivation.
2. Cheaper and simplest method compared to other food preservation
technique- Cost of processing is very low
3. Reduction in weight/ volume of fruits and vegetables (weight/ volume
reduced by 4-10 times the original weight or volume)
o Reduction in space requirement- lower cost for packaging, storage and
transport.
4. Seasonal variation
5. Add variety and provide sufficient ready-to-eat foods to consumers
(Produce convenience foods).
6. Nutrient concentration is very high per unit weight of dried products.
7. Distinctive and nutritional conventional as snack products
 Moisture Content
• Determination of moisture is important economically to the
processor and the consumer.

• Moisture content of a food product will affect its

stability and quality. Moisture is inversely proportional to
the amount of dry matter in the food.

• Two methods are used to express the moisture content of

materials: wet basis and dry basis moisture content.
 Wet basis moisture content
• Wet basis moisture content is described by the percentage equivalent of the
ratio of the weight of water (WW) to the total weight of the material (Wt).
• Wet basis moisture content can range from 0 to 100 percent.
• Wet basis moisture is used to describe the water content of agricultural
materials and food products.
• When the term "moisture content" is used in the food industry it almost
always refers to wet basis moisture content.
 Dry basis moisture content
• Dry basis moisture content is described by the percentage
equivalent of the ratio of the weight of water (WW) to the weight of
the dry matter (Wd).
• Note that dry weight moisture content can range from 0 to very
large percentages.
• Dry basis moisture is most commonly used for describing moisture
changes during drying. When a sample loses or gains moisture, the
change in the dry basis moisture is linearly related to the weight loss
or gain.
Calculation of moisture content
• When performing these calculations, it is assumed that the sample
loses only water and that the weight of the dry matter remains
constant.
• Relationship between wet basis and dry basis moisture content

% 𝑀𝑑𝑏
% 𝑀𝑤𝑏 =%𝑀 +100 x 100
𝑑𝑏

% 𝑀𝑤𝑏
% 𝑀𝑑𝑏 = x 100
100 −%𝑀𝑤𝑏

% M db > % M wb
Example
• The moisture content of mango is 80 % wb. Convert the moisture
content from wb to db.
 Calculation
• How much product will you get of 10 % MC (wb) would you obtain
when drying a 3.5 kg carrot slices (89 % MC)?

• How much water was removed during the drying process?

 Drying mechanism
• When hot air is blown over a wet food, water vapour diffuses through a
boundary film of air surrounding the food and is carried away by the moving
air. A water vapour pressure gradient is established from the moist interior
of the food to the dry air.
• This gradient provides the ‘driving force’ for water removal from the food.
Normal drying curve Typical Drying rate curve
• Settling down period: When food is placed into a drier, there is a short initial settling down
period as the surface heats up to the wet-bulb temperature (A) [transient period]

• Drying then commences: moisture is removed from the surface.

• Provided water moves from the interior of the food at the same rate as it evaporates from
the surface, the surface remains wet. This is known as the constant-rate period and
continues until a certain critical moisture content is reached (B).

• The surface temperature of the food remains close to the wet-bulb temperature of the drying
air until the end of the constant-rate period, due to the cooling effect of the evaporating
water.

• Different areas of the food surface dry out at different rates and, overall, the rate of drying
declines gradually towards the end of the ‘constant’-rate period.
• When the moisture content of the food falls below the critical moisture content, the rate of
drying slowly decreases until it approaches zero at the equilibrium moisture content (that is
the food comes into equilibrium with the drying air).

• This is known as the falling rate period.

• During the falling-rate period(s), the rate of water movement from the interior to the surface
falls below the rate at which water evaporates to the surrounding air, and the surface
therefore dries out.

• The falling-rate period is usually the longest part of a drying operation

Note:
 Cracking, shrivelling and shrinking may occur during dehydration.
 Excessively fast removal of moisture→ case hardening
• seals the surface and cause inadequate drying in the centre.
 Factors affecting drying rate
i. Air temperature,
ii. Air humidity,
iii. Air flow rate,
iv. Surface area
v. Pressure
vi. Type of dryer
vii. Physical nature of the food,
viii. Initial particular moisture content.
ix. Arrangement of food on dryer
 Harvesting Flow process

Washing
• The raw product must be harvested
at optimum maturity and processed
Peeling and slicing as carefully and rapidly as
possible.
Preparation • Rinsed in cold water: To remove
surface dust particle and pesticides
Blanching spray residues, a residual chlorine
content of 10-20 ppm of water is
Sulphiting (1-2 % KMS)/ Sulphuring (1.8 to 3.6 kg/t) recommended.
• Preparation and Pretreatment :
Drying/ dehydration (with occasional turning) • Root vegetables, apple and some
times cling-stone peaches are
peeled prior to drying.
Sweating
• Pretreatment: Many pre-
treatments are given to food
Packing before drying to speed up drying
process and obtain high quality
end products.
Storage (at ambient temp in dry place)
 Blanching
• Exposing to hot or boiling water/ steam-as a pre-treatment before drying has
the following advantages:
• deactivates the enzymes,
• it preserves the natural colour in the dried products;
• better retention of vitamins A and C
• it helps clean the material and reduce the amount of microorganisms present on the
surface;
• it shortens drying time as well as soaking and/or cooking time during reconstitution
After blanching: should be dipped into
cold water to prevent over-blanching.
 Pre-treatments using chemicals

• Sulphur dioxide (KMS)

• Ascorbic acid Treatment with preservatives takes place after
• Citric acid blanching or when blanching is not needed,
• Salt after slicing
• Sugar

* Preservative dips should only be used in

enameled, plastic or stainless-steel
containers.
 Prevent
browning and
spoilage

• Old method of pre-treating fruits: retarding spoilage and darkening, reduce loss of
Vitamins A & C
• Whole fruits, slices or pieces are exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur inside a closed
chamber known as sulphur box for 30-60 minutes or in small airtight rooms.
• 3 g sulphur for a box holding 10 trays.
 Osmotic Dehydration:
• Used as a pretreatment before further drying.
• The fruits are soaked in a heavy sugar
solution.
• Vegetables are soaked in salt solution.
• Then the fruits/ vegetables are dried (Sun/
solar drying or mechanical driers).
 Removes part of moisture during
treatment (Osmosis).
 Improves sensory, functional ad
nutritional properties of foods.
 Shelf life is better due to increase in
sugar/acid ratio,
 Improvement in texture, flavour and
stability of colour/ pigment during
storage.
Methods of Drying
 Sl. TRADITIONAL DRYING MODERN MECHANICAL
No. METHODS DEHYDRATORS
1 Utilize natural elements sunlight and Using modern drying devices
wind
2 Depends on climatic conditions Does not depend on climatic conditions
3 No control over drying conditions Under controlled drying conditions:
temperatures, humidity and air flow
4 Non uniformity in drying → poor quality Uniformity in drying → high quality products
5 More Space requirement during drying Less space requirement -inside chambers

6 Contamination from pests, insects and Sanitary conditions are maintained

dust is a problem
7 Colour may change Colour is uniform
8 Less Expensive More expensive
9 Does not need high-cost equipment for Need high-cost equipment for drying the
drying the products products
Sun Drying: cheapest method of drying foods
• Best during hot dry days
• Requires
Minimum of 30 oC
Humidity below 60 %
• No control over drying process
• Several days to dry
• More susceptible to contamination
 Disadvantages
1 Contaminations from the environment

2 Product losses and contaminations by insects and birds

3 Dependent on external factors like sunlight, need for rain free

weather, and appropriate wind speeds

4 Floor space requirements,

5 Difficulty in controlling the process

6 Bad odor
 Solar Drying
• Solar drying is a non-polluting process
and uses renewable energy.

• Here, the radiant energy from the sun is

used for drying foods.

• However, solar drying has several

drawbacks that limit its use in large-
scale production.

⁃ Need for large areas of space

⁃ High labor inputs
⁃ Difficulty in controlling the rate of drying
⁃ Insect infestation and microbial
contamination
Shade Drying
Mechanical Driers
Advantages of dehydration over sun drying
• More rapid
• Does not depend on weather
• Controlled drying conditions
• Requires less floor space
• Less chances of contamination
• Better quality
Factors for selection of drier/ drying method:
 Form of raw material
 Desired physical form and characteristics of dried product
 Necessary operating conditions
 Operation costs
Contact Drying using heated air
driers

Vacuum Atmospheric
 Drying using hot air
• Mode of heat transfer: CONVECTION
This creates a region of lower
The water vapour formed is water vapour pressure at the
carried away from the surface of the food, and a water
drying surface in the air vapour pressure gradient is
stream. established from the moist
interior of the food to the dry air.

This gradient provides the

driving force for water
removal from the food.
• The rate of removal of water depends
i. on the conditions of the air,
ii. the properties of the food and
iii. the design of the dryer.

• The capacity of air to remove moisture from a food particle

depends on
i. the temperature and
ii. the amount of water vapour already carried by the air
Equipments-should have:

• Proper insulation,
• A means of circulating air through the enclosure (generally is
controlled by fans, blowers, and baffles)
• A means of heating this air (direct or indirect methods)
Kiln Drier:
• Simplest type form of air
convection drier.
• Two storied construction with
furnace furnished at the bottom
which generates heat.
• Warm air rise through the slotted
floor to the upper story.
• Does not reduce moisture below
10%.
• E.g. Still used for drying apple
rings or slices in the USA, and
hops or malt in Europe.
Bin Driers:
• Finishing after initial drying in
other types.
• Air flows at very slow speed
0.5m/s.
• MC-(3-6%).
Cabinet/ Tray Drier:
• A step more advanced is the cabinet drier in which
food may be loaded on trays or pans in
comparatively thin layers up to a few centimeters.
• For small scale operations.
• Air flow rate is at (2.5-5) m/s.
• 10-20 h depending on the food and final desired
moisture.
Tunnel driers:
• Fully continuous drying operations.
• Air flow can be parallel flow,
countercurrent or cross-flow.
• Popular for drying fruits and
vegetables.
 Counterflow

Parallel Flow

Cross Flow
Belt drier
Fully continuous drying operations.
• Belt is made of metallic mesh.
• Heated air passes through the food from
below.
• With heated air, products are dried to 7-5%
moisture content.
 Airlift/ Pneumatic Drier
• They are often used to finish up that had
been partially dried by other methods
(particulated/ granulated foods).

• The products to be dried are suspended

and exposed to heated air.

• The final moisture can be brought to as

less as 6%.

• The suspended particles when dried are

separated from the air and collected in
cyclone separator.

In some applications the simultaneous transportation and drying of

the food may be a useful method of materials handling.
 Fluidized bed drier:
• Another type of pneutmatic drier.
• The principle of operation of fluidised bed drier is to provide sufficient air pressure to
fluidise a thin bed of product, giving excellent air-product contact.
[Link]
pBA

• For granular materials, it is also applicable in the drying of solutions, pastes and liquids (Sahay and
Singh, 2004).
• Peas, sliced beans, carrots and onions are some foods that have been dried in fluidized bed driers
(Grabowski et al., 2003).
 Spray drying
• Spray drying is a method of producing
a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by
rapidly drying with a hot gas.
• Atomizers are of 3 main types: [Link]
• Pressure spray nozzle, Centrifugal spinning disks, Pneumatic
pressure nozzle.
1. Pressure spray nozzle: The material is pumped into the nozzle at a high
pressure and it is forced to pass through a very narrow orifice.
pressure into kinetic energy
• Economic, Clogging

The droplet size varies according to

•Feed rate
•Viscosity
•Spraying pressure
2. Centrifugal spinning disc/ rotating disc: Centrifugal force
breaks up the liquid and throws it off as a spray of droplets.
• Various variants of disc
• Widely used in industry
3. Pneumatic pressure nozzle: The liquid material is ruptured by the
shearing force generated by the difference in speed between
both the air and product.
• Higher energy demand, however it is used due to its versatility, and
high control of the size and uniformity of droplets.
• For small scale and more viscous material.

[Link]
• Physicochemical properties of the spray dried
product
• Product yield,
• Moisture content, • Carrier Material
• Water activity,
• Feed flow-rate
• Hygroscopicity,
• Solubility, • Atomization
• Color, • Inlet temperature
• Particle size,
• Bulk density and
• Glass transition temperature
• Concerns in spray drying:
• Particle size affects solubility rate. making for uneven wetting
• Large particles may sink and and reconstitution of non-
• Very fine ones generally float on water, uniform products.
• Very small droplets in an atomized distribution dry as minute fines which maybe
difficult to recover.

• The angle of departure from a spray nozzle

or the trajectory from a spinning disk also
must be considered-
• form cake, overheated,
• may stick to wall and difficult to
recover/remove.
• Further, the appearance, size, shape, density,
and solubility of the final spray dried particle
can be affected by nozzle pressure, shear,
liquid viscosity, surface tension, nature of
the solids, and so on.
Contact Driers:
• When the food comes in direct contact with the drier.
• Mode of heat transfer is through conduction.
• Drum Drier:
1. Cylinder heated to 120-170oC.
2. In one revolution of 20s-30min, the food
gets dried.
3. With a food layer thickness commonly
less than 2 mm, drying can be completed
in 1 min or less, depending on the food
material.
4. Other features of drum driers include
hoods above drums to withdraw
moisture vapor and conveyors in troughs
to receive and move dried product.
5. Drum driers have high drying rates and
high energy efficiencies and they are
suitable for slurries in which the particles
are too large for spray drying
6. E.g. Potato mash, heat-tolerant purees such
as tomato paste, etc.

Fig: (a) Single drum Drier; (b) Double/ twin drum drier
Disadvantages
• High capital cost of the machined drums.
• Heat damage to sensitive foods caused by high drum temperatures
have caused a move to spray drying for many bulk dried foods.
• Drying temperature can, of course, be lowered by constructing the drums
within a vacuum chamber, but this increases equipment and operating
costs over atmospheric drum or spray drying.

• Difficult to dry thermoplastic samples. Such products tend to

crimp, roll up, and otherwise accumulate and stick to the doctor
blade.
• This condition can be substantially improved by a cold zone to make the
tacky material brittle just prior to the doctor blade.
•Vacuum Driers
• Vacuum shelf drier :batch operation

• Continuous vacuum belt drier: continuous operation.

• All vacuum drying systems have four essential elements:
1. a vacuum chamber of heavy construction to withstand outside air pressures that
may exceed internal pressure;
2. a heat supply;
3. a device for producing and maintaining the vacuum; and
4. components to collect water vapor as it is evaporated from the food.
A partial vacuum ~ 2 mm Hg is drawn in the
chamber and hot air is passed to dry the food.
• Rapid drying
• Limited heat damage.
• Can be dried to 2% moisture.
• Products dried with this equipment have a slightly puffed
structure.
• High capital and operating costs and low production
rates
 Freeze drying/ lyophilization
• Material dries directly by sublimation of frozen
water.

• For drying sensitive and high value foods:

• drying of coffee, fruit juices, spices, other high-
value foods such as strawberries, slices of
mushrooms, etc.

• Material is first frozen and then dried under

high vacuum (4 mm or less).

• Excellent quality in regard to taste, flavour,

reconstitution property etc.

• Most expensive process of dehydration.

 Freeze drying/ lyophilization

• Excellent final product (2-3 %

MC)
• Due to very low temperature, deterioration
and microbiological reactions are stopped.

• Material is highly hygroscopic:

• reconstitute rapidly
• but also must be protected from ready
absorption of atmospheric moisture
and oxygen by proper packaging.

• Since the frozen food remains rigid during

sublimation, escaping water molecules leave
voids behind them, resulting in a porous
sponge like dried structure.
 Foam Mat drying
• Foam-mat drying is a process in which a liquid or semisolid material is converted into a stable foam.
• Foaming expose enormous surface area for quick moisture escape.
• Rapid drying at lower temperature.
• In this process, foods are whipped to form foam by adding small volume of edible foaming agent (like
egg white, gums, emulsifiers, etc.).
• The foam thus formed is spread as a thin mat or sheet and exposed to a stream of hot air until it is
dried to the required moisture level.
• At oven temperatures of about 80°C, foam layers of many foods can be dried to about 2-3%
moisture in approximately 12 min.
• The dehydrated product is conditioned and converted into powder.
 Spoilage
Defects Causes Preventions
Moulding High product moisture, above • Reduce water content down to optimum
equilibrium relative humidity values.
corresponding to water activity • Pack in hermetic airtight packages.
aw=0.70
Infestation Presence in dried products of larvae or • Storage room disinfection with toxic gases.
insects. • Fumigation of packed products and of
packages.
• Disinfection by heat (60-65°C) of products
before packing.
Browning Chemical reactions • Reduce water content as much as possible
• Store at low temperature.
Enzymatic reactions Enzyme inactivation by blanching before
drying.
Reduced Too high temperature in final stage of Operate inside final temperatures as
rehydration drying recommended
ratio
 Rehydration/ reconstitution
• Addition of water to restore to a condition similar to that when fresh.
• Vegetables can be cooked after rehydration
• Reconstitution test: to examine dried foods.
• 35 g sample + 275 ml water (cold)
• Boil gently for 30 mins
• Examine drained product for palatability, toughness, flavour, presence or absence of
off flavours, etc.
• Examine the drained water for traces of soil and other foreign matters.

(Where, a= initial dried sample wt.; b= rehydrated sample wt.)