Chapter 01: Cellular Organization of Chapter 02: Sense Organs

Humans have five major sense organs, each with specialized receptors.
Plants and Animals 1. Eye (Vision)
CELL ●​ Function: Detects light stimuli and helps in vision.
●​ Definition: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living ●​ Major Parts:
things. ○​ Cornea: Curved front surface; bends light towards the lens.
●​ Discovery: Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665 using a simple ○​ Pupil: Opening in the iris; controls light entry.
microscope while examining cork. ○​ Iris: Colored part of eye; regulates pupil size.
●​ Function: Cells work like a factory—taking in materials like sugar and salt, ○​ Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
and producing substances needed by the body. ○​ Retina: Screen of the eye; contains photoreceptors (Rods – detect
TYPES OF CELLS light, Cones – detect color).
Animal Cell ○​ Optic Nerve: Transfers visual signals to the brain.
●​ Structure: 2. Ear (Hearing & Balance)
○​ Cell Membrane: Thin, partially permeable boundary around the ●​ Function: Detects sound waves and helps maintain balance.
cell. ●​ Three Parts:
○​ Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing ○​ Outer Ear: Pinna and ear canal collect sound.
chemicals. ○​ Middle Ear: Eardrum and three bones (Malleus, Incus, Stapes)
○​ Vacuoles: Small spaces with air, liquid, or food. transmit vibrations.
○​ Nucleus: Controls cell activities and contains chromosomes. ○​ Inner Ear: Cochlea (converts vibrations into signals),
○​ Chromosomes: Thread-like structures carrying genetic Semicircular canals (help in balance).
information. ○​ Auditory Nerve: Sends sound signals to the brain.
Plant Cell 3. Nose (Smell)
●​ Contains all parts of an animal cell plus: ●​ Function: Detects chemical smells in the air.
○​ Cell Wall: Thick, permeable outer layer made of cellulose, gives ●​ Key Parts:
shape and support. ○​ Nasal Cavity: Inner part with smell receptors.
○​ Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll; trap sunlight for ○​ Olfactory Bulb: Part of the brain that receives signals from nose
photosynthesis. receptors.
○​ Large Vacuole: Stores cell sap (water, salts, sugar); keeps the cell 4. Tongue (Taste)
TYPES OF ORGANISMS ●​ Function: Detects taste through chemical receptors.
Unicellular Organisms ●​ Structure:
●​ Made of one cell. ○​ Papillae: Small projections on the tongue’s surface.
●​ Perform all life functions independently. ○​ Taste Buds: Contain taste receptor cells (sweet, salty, sour, bitter).
●​ Found in water and moist places. ○​ Sensory Nerves: Carry signals to the brain.
●​ Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium (Animals); Chlamydomonas, Euglena 5. Skin (Touch)
(Plants) ●​ Function: Detects touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold.
Multicellular Organisms ●​ Layers:
●​ Made of many cells, each with a special role. ○​ Epidermis: Outer thin layer.
●​ Found on land and in water. ○​ Dermis: Inner layer with sensory receptors.
●​ Examples: Hydra, Eagle (Animals); Fern, Coconut tree (Plants)
CHAPTER 03: ENVIRONMENT AND
TISSUES AND ORGANS
●​ Tissue: Group of similar cells performing the same function.​ INTERACTIONS
Environment:It includes all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components around
○​ Animal Tissues: us
■​ Epithelial Tissue: Protection Biotic Components
■​ Muscle Tissue: Movement 1.​ Producers:
○​ Plant Tissues: ○​ Green plants, algae, and some bacteria.
■​ Epidermal Tissue: Protection ○​ They make their own food using sunlight, carbon dioxide, and
■​ Photosynthetic Tissue: Makes food water.
●​ Organ: Group of different tissues working together.​ 2.​ Consumers:
○​ Animals that eat plants or other animals.
○​ Human Organs: Liver, Lungs, Heart ○​ Primary consumers: herbivores (e.g., goat, cow).
○​ Plant Organs: Roots, Stem, Leaves, Flowers ○​ Secondary consumers: carnivores (e.g., lion, dog).
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS 3.​ Decomposers:
○​ Organisms like fungi and bacteria.
System Main Parts Function
○​ They feed on dead organisms, breaking them into simpler
substances.
Digestive Mouth, Stomach, Liver, Breaks down food Abiotic Components
Intestines ●​ Non-living factors: light, air, soil, temperature, and water.
●​ They influence the survival of living organisms in an area.
Respiratory Nose, Trachea, Lungs, Gas exchange (O₂ in, CO₂ out) Habitats
Diaphragm ●​ Deserts: Hot, dry, sandy, low rainfall.
●​ Rainforests: Warm, heavy rainfall, very rich in biodiversity.
Circulatory Heart, Veins, Arteries Transports blood ●​ Wetlands: Sensitive ecosystems with unique species; need protection from
deforestation.
Nervous Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves Sends and receives signals Ecosystem
●​ A system where biotic and abiotic components interact.
Excretory Kidneys, Bladder, Urethra Removes waste from the body ●​ Examples: grasslands, forests, oceans, freshwater.
Key Points:
ORGANIZATION LEVELS (HUMANS & PLANTS) ●​ Biotic components like plants and animals interact with abiotic factors like
Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism soil and sunlight.
PLANT SYSTEMS ●​ Human activities (like pollution and construction) can disturb this balance.
1.​ Root System:​ ●​ Changes in one component can affect the whole ecosystem.
Limiting Factors
○​ Grows below soil. ●​ Conditions that control the population size of organisms.
○​ Absorbs water and minerals. ○​ Examples: temperature in the Arctic, rain for plants.
2.​ Shoot System:​ Types of Relationships
1.​ Predator(‫–)شڪارڪندڙ‬Prey(‫)شڪار‬:
○​ Grows above soil. ○​ One organism (predator) eats another (prey).
○​ Includes stem, leaves, flowers, fruits. ○​ Example: Lion (predator) and deer (prey).
○​ Transports food, supports plant, and helps in reproduction. 2.​ Parasitism:
○​ ○​ A parasite lives on or in a host, harming it.
○​ Example: Mosquitoes on humans.
3.​ Mutualism:
 ○​ Both organisms benefit.
○​ Example: Bee and flower (pollination), birds cleaning buffaloes.
Food Chain: Describes how energy passes from plants to herbivores to carnivores.
●​ A delicate balance: if one species is lost, the chain gets disrupted.

Chapter 04: Atoms, Molecules,

Mixtures and Compounds
​5. Compound
​1. Atom
●​ ​ efinition: A compound is a pure substance formed when two or more
D
●​ ​ efinition: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the
D different elements chemically combine in a fixed ratio.
properties of that element. ●​ ​Properties: * A compound has new properties different from its constituent
●​ ​Basic Unit: Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter. elements.
●​ ​Subatomic Particles: Every atom contains three subatomic particles: ○​ ​It can only be separated by chemical methods.
○​ ​Proton (p^+): Positive charge ○​ ​Every compound has a chemical formula.
○​ ​Neutron (n^0): No charge ●​ ​Examples:
○​ ​Electron (e^-): Negative charge ○​ ​Water (H_2O): Hydrogen + Oxygen
●​ ​Rutherford's Atomic Model: ○​ ​Carbon dioxide (CO_2): Carbon + Oxygen
○​ ​A tiny, dense nucleus is present at the center. ○​ ​Common salt (NaCl): Sodium + Chlorine
○​ ​Electrons revolve around the nucleus. ○​ ​Sugar (C_6H_{12}O_6): Carbon + Hydrogen + Oxygen
●​ ​Key Point: Atoms combine to form molecules and compounds. ○​ ​Washing soda (Na_2CO_3): Sodium + Carbon + Oxygen
●​ ​Key Point: Compounds are always formed in a fixed proportion.

​2. Element
​6. Mixture
●​ ​ efinition: An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom.
D
●​ ​Characteristics: Every element has: ●​ ​ efinition: A mixture is formed when two or more substances are mixed
D
○​ ​A unique set of properties. physically without chemical combination.
○​ ​A chemical symbol (e.g., H, O, Fe). ●​ ​Properties:
●​ ​Abundance: Around 120 elements are known. ○​ ​Each substance retains its original properties.
●​ ​States of Matter: Elements exist as: ○​ ​Components can usually be separated by physical methods.
○​ ​Solid: Iron, Aluminum ●​ ​States: Mixtures may be solid, liquid, or gas.
○​ ​Liquid: Mercury ●​ ​Examples:
○​ ​Gas: Hydrogen, Oxygen ○​ ​Air: Mixture of gases (about 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, others)
●​ ​Examples: ○​ ​Salad: Mixture of vegetables
○​ ​Hydrogen (H): Lightest gas; used in balloons. ○​ ​Food: Mixture of different ingredients
○​ ​Aluminum (Al): Used in aircraft and utensils. ●​ ​Key Point: In a mixture, substances are not chemically combined.
○​ ​Magnesium (Mg): Used in fireworks.
○​ ​Iron (Fe): Used in buildings, bridges, and vehicles.
●​ ​Remember: One element contains only one kind of atom. ​Quick Comparison
​Element vs Compound
​3. Classification of Elements
●​ ​ lement: One type of atom.
E
​A. Metals ●​ ​Compound: Two or more different elements chemically combined in a fixed
ratio.
●​ ​Characteristics:
○​ ​Mostly solid at room temperature. ​Compound vs Mixture
○​ ​Good conductors of heat and electricity.
○​ ​Ductile: Can be drawn into wires.
●​ ​ ompound: Chemical combination, fixed composition, new properties.
C
○​ ​Malleable: Can be beaten into sheets.
●​ ​Mixture: Physical combination, variable composition, original properties
○​ ​High melting and boiling points.
retained.

​B. Non-Metals
​Molecule vs Atom

●​ ​Characteristics:
●​ ​ tom: Smallest particle of an element.
A
○​ ​Usually gases or brittle solids.
●​ ​Molecule: Two or more atoms chemically bonded together.
○​ ​Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
○​ ​Neither ductile nor malleable.
○​ ​Low melting and boiling points.
●​ ​Difference: Metals conduct electricity well, while non-metals generally do
not.

​4. Molecule
●​ ​ efinition: A molecule is the smallest independent unit of an element or
D
compound. It is formed when two or more atoms combine.
●​ ​Types of Molecules:
1.​ ​Molecules of the Same Element:
■​ ​O_2 (Oxygen)
■​ ​N_2 (Nitrogen)
2.​ ​Molecules of Different Elements:
■​ ​H_2O (Water)
■​ ​CO_2 (Carbon dioxide)
●​ ​Key Point: Molecules may contain the same or different kinds of atoms.
CHAPTER 05: AIR
●​ ​ itrogen Fixation: Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates by
N
bacteria.
●​ ​Greenhouse Gas: Gas that traps heat in Earth's atmosphere.
​Air ●​ ​Ozone Layer: Protective layer that absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays.
​ ir is a mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. It forms the atmosphere, extending about
A
480 km above Earth. It is essential for life, weather, and climate.
​Quick Revision
​Composition of Air ●​ ​ ost abundant gas: Nitrogen (78.08%)
M
●​ ​Nitrogen (N₂): 78.08% ●​ ​Gas used for breathing: Oxygen
●​ ​Oxygen (O₂): 20.95% ●​ ​Gas used in photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide
●​ ​Argon (Ar): 0.93% ●​ ​Gas protecting from UV rays: Ozone
●​ ​Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): 0.04% ●​ ​Method to separate sand from water: Filtration
●​ ​Other Gases: 0.9284% ●​ ​Method to obtain pure water from seawater: Distillation
​Importance of Air ●​ ​Method to separate camphor: Sublimation
●​ ​Essential for respiration (breathing). ●​ ​Method to obtain pure crystals: Crystallization
●​ ​Provides oxygen for living organisms. ●​ ​Method to separate dyes: Paper Chromatography
●​ ​Supplies carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
●​ ​Ozone layer protects Earth from harmful UV rays.
Chapter 05: Air
●​ ​Atmosphere helps maintain Earth's temperature by reducing heat loss. Composition of Air
​Uses of Air Air is a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth, forming a protective layer called the
●​ ​Generates electricity through wind energy. atmosphere. This layer extends up to about 480 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
●​ ​Helps in seed dispersal. Composition by Volume:
●​ ​Used as compressed air in machines and to fill tyres. ●​ Nitrogen (N₂) – 78.08%
●​ ​Supports combustion (burning). ●​ Oxygen (O₂) – 20.95%
●​ Argon (Ar) – 0.93%
​Oxygen (O₂) ●​ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – 0.04%
​A. Key Points ●​ Other gases – 0.9284%
●​ ​Makes up 20.95% of air. Importance and Uses of Air
●​ ​Essential for respiration. ●​ Essential for Life: Air is needed for breathing (respiration) by most living
●​ ​Supports combustion. organisms.
●​ ​Discovered by Joseph Priestley (1774). ●​ Photosynthesis: Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, helping
​B. Combustion maintain the balance of gases.
●​ ​Formula: Wax + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy ●​ Ozone Layer: A layer of ozone gas in the upper atmosphere protects life on
●​ ​Example: A burning candle needs oxygen to keep burning. Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays of the Sun.
​6. Nitrogen (N₂) ●​ Insulation: At night, the atmosphere helps retain surface heat and keeps
​A. Key Points temperatures stable.
●​ ​Makes up 78.08% of air. Uses of Air in Daily Life:
●​ ​Chemically less reactive (inactive). ●​ Wind energy: Used to generate electricity.
●​ ​Earlier called Azote ("without life"). ●​ Dispersal of seeds: Helps in plant reproduction.
​B. Nitrogen Fixation ●​ Compressed air: Used in tools like drills, mining machines, and to fill tires.
●​ ​Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants convert Main Gases in Air and Their Functions
nitrogen into nitrates. Oxygen (O₂)
●​ ​Plants use nitrates to make proteins. ●​ Vital for respiration in animals and humans.
●​ ​Examples of leguminous plants: Peas, Beans. ●​ Required for combustion (burning). Example: In burning a candle, wax reacts
​7. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) with oxygen to produce water, carbon dioxide, and energy.
●​ Discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1774.
​A. Key Points
Combustion Reaction (Candle Example):​
●​ ​Contains 1 carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms.
Wax + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
●​ ​A greenhouse gas that traps heat.
Nitrogen (N₂)
​B. Sources
●​ A chemically inactive gas, previously called azote (“without life”).
●​ ​Burning fossil fuels.
●​ Nitrogen Fixation: Special bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants
●​ ​Respiration of living organisms.
(e.g., peas, beans) convert nitrogen from the air into nitrates.
●​ ​Vehicle exhaust and smoke.
●​ Nitrates are used by plants to form plant proteins.
​C. Importance
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
●​ ​Used by plants in photosynthesis.
●​ Composed of 1 carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms.
●​ ​Helps maintain Earth's temperature.
●​ Formed by:
​D. Harmful Effects
○​ Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
●​ ​Causes global warming.
○​ Respiration in living beings
●​ ​High levels are harmful to human lungs.
○​ Car exhaust and smoke
​E. Control Measures
●​ Used in Photosynthesis: Plants absorb CO₂ to make glucose and release O₂.
●​ ​Reduce the use of fossil fuels.
●​ Greenhouse Gas: Traps heat radiated from Earth, maintaining temperature.
●​ ​Use solar and wind energy.
●​ Excess CO₂ causes Global Warming and is harmful to lungs.
●​ ​Plant more trees.
Control Measures:
​8. Separation of Mixtures ●​ Reduce fossil fuel use by switching to solar and wind energy.
​1. Filtration ●​ Plant more trees to absorb CO₂.
●​ ​Purpose: Separates insoluble solids from liquids. Separation of Mixtures
●​ ​Example: Sand + Water. Mixtures can be separated using physical methods depending on their properties:
​2. Sublimation 1. Filtration
●​ ​Purpose: Separates solids that change directly into gas. ●​ Separates insoluble solids (e.g., sand) from liquids.
●​ ​Examples: Camphor, Iodine. ●​ Involves passing a mixture through filter paper.
​3. Distillation 2. Sublimation
●​ ​Purpose: Purifies liquids by boiling and condensation. ●​ Separates a solid that directly changes into gas without becoming liquid.
●​ ​Example: Obtaining pure water from seawater. ●​ Used to purify substances like camphor or iodine.
​4. Crystallization 3. Distillation
●​ ​Purpose: Obtains pure solid crystals from a saturated solution. ●​ Used to purify a liquid.
●​ ​Examples: Salt, Sugar. ●​ Example: Boiling seawater produces steam, which is condensed to get pure
​5. Paper Chromatography water, leaving salts behind.
●​ ​Purpose: Separates colored substances. 4. Crystallization
●​ ​Example: Different dyes in ink. ●​ Obtains pure solid crystals by cooling a saturated solution.
​Important Terms ●​ Useful for recovering substances like sugar or salt from a solution.
●​ ​ tmosphere: Layer of gases around Earth.
A 5. Paper Chromatography
●​ ​Respiration: Process of releasing energy from food using oxygen. ●​ Separates colored substances (e.g., dyes).
●​ ​Photosynthesis: Process by which plants make food using CO₂, water, and ●​ Involves a stationary phase (paper) and a mobile phase (solvent).
sunlight.
●​ ​Combustion: Burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen.
 Renewable Energy
Chapter 06: Solutions and ●​ From natural, unlimited sources: sunlight, wind, water.
●​ Can be used repeatedly.
Suspensions ●​ Eco-friendly, does not produce waste or pollution.
1. Solution ●​ More cost-efficient and sustainable for future generations.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture where two components – solute and solvent – are Law of Conservation of Energy
evenly mixed, forming a clear and transparent liquid. ●​ Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.
●​ Solute:​ ●​ Total input energy = output energy.
The substance that dissolves in a solution. It is present in a smaller quantity.​ ●​ Energy is always conserved, not lost.
Example: Salt or sugar in water. Energy in the Human Body
●​ Solvent:​ ●​ Food provides chemical energy.
The substance that dissolves the solute. It is present in a larger quantity.​ ●​ It is converted into:
Example: Water – known as the universal solvent. ○​ Kinetic energy (when running),
2. Types of Solutions ○​ Heat energy (body warmth),
●​ Aqueous Solution:​ ○​ Sound energy (speaking/singing).
A solution where water is the solvent. Conclusion
●​ Concentrated Solution:​ ●​ Energy exists in many forms and is essential for life.
A solution that contains a high amount of solute compared to solvent. ●​ Using renewable energy is key to protecting the environment and ensuring
●​ Dilute Solution:​ a sustainable future.
A solution that contains a low amount of solute compared to solvent.
●​ Saturated Solution:​ Chapter 08: Forces and Machines
A solution that cannot dissolve more solute at a given temperature. Wheel and Axle
●​ Unsaturated Solution:​ ●​ A wheel and axle is a type of lever where the center (axle) acts as a
A solution that can still dissolve more solute at the same temperature. fulcrum.
3. Solubility ●​ They work together to move or turn a load using applied effort.
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100g of water at ●​ Used to:
a specific temperature. ○​ Make movement easier.
●​ Solubility increases with temperature for most solids. ○​ Change the speed, direction, or force needed.
●​ Example: More sugar dissolves in hot water than in cold water. ○​ Travel longer distances with less effort.
4. Suspension Gears
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute particles are large and do ●​ A gear is a wheel with teeth, also called a cog.
not dissolve. They remain suspended in the solvent and settle over time. ●​ Two or more gears must be connected with their teeth fitting together to
●​ Example: Muddy water, fog (suspended dust, smoke, and water droplets). work.
5. Comparison Between Solution and Suspension ●​ Turning one gear causes the other to turn in the opposite direction.
Gear Functions:
Feature Solution Suspension
●​ Increase force: If the second gear has more teeth, it turns slower but with
more force.
Nature Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture ●​ Increase speed: If the second gear has fewer teeth, it turns faster but with less
force.
Visibility Solute not visible Solute particles are visible ●​ Change direction: Turning direction always reverses between connected
gears.
Appearance Clear and transparent Cloudy or opaque ●​ Gearing up: Large gear drives small gear → more speed, less force.
●​ Gearing down: Small gear drives large gear → more force, less speed.
Stability Stable; solute doesn’t settle Unstable; solute particles may settle Pulleys
1. Fixed Pulley
Chapter 07: Energy and Its Forms ●​ Attached to a fixed support.
●​ Changes the direction of force.
What is Energy? ●​ Example: Pulling down lifts the load upward.
●​ Energy is the ability to do work or perform tasks. 2. Movable Pulley
●​ It is measured in joules (J). ●​ Moves with the load.
●​ Energy exists everywhere around us — in sunlight, wind, fuel, and ●​ Reduces the amount of effort needed.
electricity. ●​ Load moves in the same direction as applied force.
Forms of Energy 3. Double Pulley System (Block and Tackle)
1.​ Thermal Energy ●​ Combination of fixed and movable pulleys.
○​ Comes from heat. ●​ Greatly reduces effort.
○​ Sun is the natural source. ●​ Used in cranes, elevators, shipyards, etc.
○​ It warms anything it touches. ●​ Allows lifting heavy loads with less force.
2.​ Sound Energy Bicycle – A Machine in Action
○​ Created by vibrations of particles. ●​ A bicycle uses gears and chain (like a pulley system) to transfer force.
○​ The louder the sound, the more energy it has. ●​ Pedals apply force → turn front gear → move chain → turn back wheel.
○​ Found in radios, TVs, engines. ●​ This motion moves the bicycle forward.
3.​ Electrical Energy Key Concepts Summary
○​ Produced by the flow of electrons in a circuit.
○​ Powers appliances and machines. Concept Function
4.​ Kinetic Energy
○​ Energy of moving objects. Wheel & Axle Reduces effort, increases movement, changes direction
○​ Depends on mass and speed.
5.​ Potential Energy Gear Changes speed, force, direction through teeth
○​ Stored energy in an object at rest.
○​ Depends on mass and height above the ground. Pulley (Fixed) Changes direction of force
Energy Conversion
●​ Energy can change from one form to another, e.g.:
Pulley (Movable) Reduces force needed
○​ TV converts electrical energy into light and sound.
○​ Car engine converts chemical energy (fuel) into kinetic energy.
○​ Bulb converts electricity to light and heat. Block & Tackle Reduces force further using multiple pulleys
Energy Converters
●​ Machines/appliances that change energy from one form to another. Bicycle Mechanism Applies pulley-like gear system for efficient motion
●​ Examples: TV, washing machine, radio, lamp, drill.
●​ Help in saving energy and improving life.
Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources
CHAPTER 9: PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
1. Nature of Light
Non-Renewable Energy ●​ Light travels in straight lines.
●​ Mostly from fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas). ●​ It changes direction through reflection, absorption, or transmission.
●​ Formed over millions of years. ●​ We see objects because light reflects from them into our eyes.
●​ Limited supply – once used, they can’t be replaced. 2. Interaction of Light with Surfaces
●​ Main disadvantage: pollutes the environment and will run out. a) Reflection
 ●​ Light bounces back from smooth surfaces like mirrors.
Brick 3650 Gold 3240
●​ Law of Reflection: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.
●​ Enables us to see images in mirrors. How Do We Hear?
Types of Reflection: 1.​ Sound waves enter the ear canal and vibrate the eardrum.
●​ Regular (Specular): Smooth surfaces (mirrors, calm water); image is clear. 2.​ These vibrations pass through the three tiny bones in the middle ear.
●​ Diffused (Irregular/Scattered): Rough surfaces; no clear image. 3.​ The last bone, stirrup, hits the cochlea’s membrane.
b) Absorption 4.​ Inside the cochlea, fluid moves and hair cells send signals to the hearing
●​ Light energy is absorbed by surfaces and turns into heat. nerve.
●​ Dark and matte surfaces absorb more light. 5.​ This process allows the brain to detect and understand sound.
c) Transmission
●​ Light passes through materials (like glass) without being absorbed or Chapter 11: Space and Satellites
reflected. Celestial Bodies and Astronomy
3. Plane Mirrors ●​ Celestial Bodies include the Sun, Moon, stars, planets, comets, and asteroids.
●​ Have flat reflecting surfaces. ●​ Astronomy is the science that studies celestial objects and space.
●​ Produce virtual, laterally inverted, same-sized images at the same distance ●​ Space is the vast empty region between celestial objects in the universe.
behind the mirror. Satellites
Examples & Uses: A satellite is any object that revolves around a larger celestial body.
●​ Rearview mirrors (e.g., "AMBULANCE" is written reversed for mirror Types of Satellites
reading). 1.​ Natural Satellite​
●​ Optical instruments: Microscopes, Telescopes, Periscopes, Kaleidoscopes.
4. Optical Instruments Using Mirrors ○​ Formed naturally in space.
a) Periscope ○​ Example: The Moon, Earth's only natural satellite.
●​ Uses two plane mirrors at 45° angles. ○​ All planets except Mercury and Venus have natural satellites
●​ Used in submarines to view the surface from underwater. (moons).
b) Kaleidoscope ○​ Over 173 natural satellites exist in our solar system.
●​ Uses three mirrors inclined at 60° forming a triangle. 2.​ Artificial Satellite​
●​ Shows beautiful multiple reflections of colored beads.
5. Curved Mirrors ○​ Man-made satellites launched using rockets.
a) Concave Mirror (Inward curve) ○​ Used for various purposes like communication, navigation,
●​ Close object: Image is virtual, upright, magnified. weather monitoring, and space research.
●​ Far object: Image is real, inverted, reduced. ○​ Orbit Earth in elliptical paths and use solar energy.
●​ Uses: ○​ Examples: PakSat-3R, INSAT (India), GPS satellites, Hubble
○​ Headlights Space Telescope.
○​ Shaving/makeup mirrors The Moon
○​ Dentist mirrors ●​ Natural satellite of Earth.
○​ Reflecting telescopes ●​ Appears spherical.
b) Convex Mirror (Outward curve) ●​ Diameter is about 27% that of Earth.
●​ Always forms virtual, upright, smaller images. Halley's Comet
●​ Uses: ●​ A short-period comet, visible from Earth every 76 years.
○​ Rear-view mirrors in vehicles ●​ Last seen in 1986, next expected in 2062.
○​ Security mirrors in malls ●​ First observed in 240 BC.
○​ Blind-spot mirrors on roads Ground Stations
Chapter 10: Investigating Sound ●​ Earth-based centers that monitor and communicate with satellites using large
dish antennas and computers.
What is Sound? ●​ Help control satellite operations and gather data.
●​ Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects. Famous Space Agencies
●​ These vibrations cause the surrounding medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to
vibrate. Agency Country ESA Europe
●​ The more energy used, the faster the vibrations and the louder the sound.
How Sound is Detected NASA USA ISRO India
●​ A microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy.
●​ When sound waves hit the diaphragm of a microphone, it vibrates. RKA Russia JAXA Japan
●​ These vibrations become electrical signals, which are sent for recording or
amplification. CNSA China KARI Korea
Sound Waves
●​ Sound travels as longitudinal waves. CNES France SUPARCO Pakistan
●​ It consists of:
○​ Compression: Particles are close together. Types and Uses of Artificial Satellites
○​ Rarefaction: Particles are spread apart. Type of Satellite Purpose Examples
●​ This back-and-forth motion of air particles is what we call a sound wave.
Travel of Sound in Different Mediums
Weather Satellites Observe atmospheric GOES-8 (USA),
●​ Sound requires a medium to travel. It cannot travel in space (vacuum).
conditions, predict weather. MeteoSat (Europe)
●​ Solids > Liquids > Gases (in speed of sound)
●​ In denser mediums, particles are closer, so sound travels faster.
Speed of Sound Communication Enable TV, radio, internet, and PakSat-3R, INSAT
●​ First measured by Marin Mersenne in 1640. Satellites phone communication. (India), AsiaSat
●​ Robert Boyle proved sound needs a medium.
●​ Sound travels much slower than light. Imaging Satellites Photograph Earth for mapping, LandSat (USA),
○​ Light: ~300,000 km/s agriculture, and disaster GeoEye, WorldView
○​ Sound in air: ~332 m/s monitoring.
●​ Speed depends on:
○​ Medium type (solid, liquid, gas) Scientific Satellites Study space, stars, planets, and Hubble Telescope,
○​ Density conduct experiments. International Space
○​ Temperature: Warmer medium = Faster sound Station (ISS)
Speed of Sound in Different Materials
Navigation Satellites Track locations, support rescue GPS satellites
Substance Speed (m/s) Substance Speed (m/s)
missions and travel guidance.
Aluminum 6420 Lead 2160 Global Positioning System (GPS)
●​ A space-based navigation system used worldwide.
Glass 5100 Sea Water 1530 ●​ Helps locate people, vehicles, and places.
●​ Composed of:
Copper 4760 Air 332 ○​ Satellites (send signals)
○​ Receivers (collect signals)
○​ Ground stations (monitor and track)