Applied Entomology

Unit One
Introduction
Entomology is the scientific study of insects.
 Insects are arthropods (phylum Arthropoda) belonging to the Class Insecta.
 Insects comprise the most numerous and diverse group of animals (estimated
925,000 species),
 Representing more than half (about 57 percent) of all identified animal species.

Applied Entomology is concerned with beneficial and harmful applications of the

insects. (To ?)
 Insects are either directly beneficial or harmful to humans, plants, and other animals.
 Beneficial insects include those that are producing foods, pollinators of agricultural
crops, used in a cosmetic processing, medicinal values and vital as biological control
agents.
 The study of beneficial insects is primarily focused on their ecology and life habits,
 The primary concern being the understanding of how to raise them and make them
more productive, or protect them from human disturbance if they are native species
such as wild bees.
 Furthermore, applied Entomology or Economic Entomology deals with the usefulness
of the Science of Entomology for the benefit of mankind.
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 Applied entomology covers (scope) the study of insects which are either beneficial or
harmful to human beings.
 It deals with the ways in which beneficial insects like predators, parasitoids, pollinators or
productive insects like honey bees, silkworm and lac insect can be best exploited for our
welfare.
 It also studies the methods in which harmful insects or pests can be managed without
causing significant damage or loss to us.

When insects came to exist?

 Insects came to existence about 350-500 million years ago.
 It is obvious; therefore, that man must have benefited from them and faced the
problem of insect pests quite early in the history of his existence.
o The bible lists at least 6-7 or more insect pests. Can you mention them?
o Ancient peoples used the humble bee for their cosmetics, utilizing a bee's wax for lotions
and creams.
o Moreover, insects are known for their destruction of crops and as means of disease causing
insects.

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1.1. Historical Background of Applied Entomology

Applied Entomology/Economic entomology is a field of entomology, which involves the
study of insects that benefit or harm humans, domestic animals, and crops.
 Insects that cause losses are termed as pests.
 Some species can cause indirect damage by spreading diseases and these are termed as
vectors.
 Many entomologists have been studying insects for the benefit of human kind.
 This applied science, manipulating insect for the benefit of man becomes to be
significant with development of biological equipments.
The study of beneficial insects, such as honeybees and silkworm, is primarily focused
on their ecology and life habits.
 During 20th century Among the most important reports early in the 20th century were
those of Charles Valentine Riley, published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
extending from 1878 to his death, in which is embodied an enormous amount of valuable
material.
 The chief writings of J. A. Lintner extend from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts, under the
title of Reports on the Injurious Insects of the State of New York.
 Another significant contributor to the entomological literature of the United States was
Charles W. Woodworth.

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 The Florida entomologist Wilmon Newell was a pioneer of pest control as was Clarence
Preston Gillette.
 In India Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher, the first Imperial Entomologist wrote Some South
Indian insects and other animals of importance considered especially from an economic
point of view.
 In the last quarter of the 20th century, a new technique of Integrated Pest Management
was introduced by Ray F. Smith.
➲On the other hand, much of the study of harmful insects is focused on their physiology,
with the goal of developing insect controls that are effective while minimizing
undesirable side effects.
 For instance, much type of insecticides have been developed that target unique aspects of
insect internals and are thus harmless to other kinds of animals.
 The study of anatomical, morphological, taxonomic and physiological studies of insects
in relation to insect-pests is considered as applied entomology.
 This applied study had long history. Chinese were the first to use natural enemies to
control insect pests. Ants were used for control of different pests. Think about how ant
can attack the mites!

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1.2. Scope of Applied Entomology

Cultural Entomology (CE) is an interdisciplinary academic discipline forming a
consilience between the natural sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities, and the
emerging third branch of insect studies.
 The core concepts of Cultural Entomology extend back as far back into the origins of
human civilization.
 In the 1990s, the discipline got international attention via the Cultural Entomology
Digest, a publication "to anyone interested in the multitudes of insect references within
human culture" From 1994-1997.
 Its purpose is to explore the interrelations and influence of insects and other arthropods
on human populations, and vice versa.
 The field invites both a full empirical investigation and the subjective expression of an
individual's experience.
 Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be
analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively; it includes the knowledge regarding insects and
their coexistence with human society.
 The unique attribute of cultural Entomology is its interdisciplinary study rather than a
"hard" science.
➲In a broader aspect the field of entomology can be divided into two such as general
Entomology and applied Entomology.

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 General Entomology deals with the basic or academic aspects of the Science of
Entomology. It includes morphology, anatomy, physiology and taxonomy of the insects.
 In this case we study the subject for gaining knowledge on Entomology irrespective
of whether it is useful or harmful.
 While Applied Entomology deals with the usefulness of the Science of Entomology for
the benefit of mankind.
 Applied entomology covers the study of insects which are either beneficial or harmful to
human beings.
 It deals with the ways in which beneficial insects like predators, parasitoids, pollinators
or productive insects like honey bees, silkworm and lac insect can be best exploited for
our welfare.
 Applied entomology also studies the methods in which harmful insects can be managed
without causing significant damage or loss to us.

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Insect classifications
➧In fundamental entomology insects are classified based on their structure into families
and orders etc.
➧In applied entomology insects can be classified based on their economic importance i.e.
whether they are useful or harmful. Insects can be classified as follows based on their
economic importance into injurious and beneficial insects.
A. Injurious insects
1. Pests of cultivated plants (crop pests): Each cultivated plant harbors many insect pests which
feed on them reduce the yield of the crop. Examples, Cotton bollworm, Maize stem bores.
2. Storage pests: Insects feed on stored products and cause economic loss. Example, Maize weevil,
Pulse beetle.
3. Pest attacking cattle and domestic animals: Cattle are affected by pests like Horse fly, Flesh
fly, and Flies. They suck blood and sometimes eat the flash.
4. Household and disease carrying insects: House hold pests include cockroach, ants, etc,. Disease
carrying insects are mosquitoes, houseflies, bed bugs, fleas etc.
Disease transmitting insects
 Mosquito - Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue fever.
 Housefly - Typhoid, Cholera, Leprosy, Anthrax
 Sand flies – Leshimaniasis
 Tsetse fly – Sleeping sickness

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B. Beneficial insects
1. Productive insects
 Silk worm:- The filament secreted from the salivary gland of the larva helps us in producing silk.
 Honey bee:- Provides us with honey and many other byproducts like bees wax and royal jelly.
 Lac insects:- The secretion from the body of scale insects is lac. Useful in making vanishes and polishes.
2. Insects useful as drugs, food, ornaments etc,
(a) As medicine e.g. Sting of honey bees- remedy for rheumatism and arthritis
(b) As food - for animals and human being. For animals - aquatic insects used as fish food. Grass
hoppers, termites, pupa of moths have been used as food by human beings in different parts of
the world.
(c) Ornaments, entertainers
- Artists and designers copy colour of butterflies.
- Beetles worm as necklace.
- Insect collection is a hobby
(d) Scientific research: Drosophila and mosquitoes are useful in genetic and toxicological studies
respectively.

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3. Helpful insects
➧Parasites: These are small insects which feed and live on harmful insects by completing their life
cycle in a host and kill the host insect.
➧Predators: These are large insects which capture and devour harmful insects.
➧Pollinators: Many cross pollinated plants depend on insects for pollination.
➧Weed killers: Insects which feed on weed.
➧Soil builders: soil insects such as ants, beetles, larval of cutworms, crickets, collembolan, make
tunnels in soil and facilitate aeration in soil.
➧Scavengers: Insects which feed on dead and decaying matter are called scavengers. They are
important for maintaining hygiene in the surroundings.

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Unit Two
Economically Important Insects
 Insects and/or their products have been eaten by humans for thousands of years.
 The value of benefits derived from insects is quite a lot as a result of their pollinating
activity, their role in biological control, and their importance as honey, silk, and wax
producers.
 The most important beneficial insects that have productive value are the silk producing
moths (Bombyx mori), honey bee (Apis mellifera), lac insects (Laccifer lacca or
Tachardia lacca) and other productive insects.
2.1. Silk Culture
Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of silk.
 Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most
widely used and intensively studied silkworm.
 Silk was first produced in China as early as the Neolithic period.
 Sericulture has become an important cottage industry in countries such as Brazil,
China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, and Russia.
 Today, China and India are the two main producers, with more than 60% of the world's
annual production.
 Silkworm larvae are fed with mulberry leaves, and, after the fourth molt, climb a twig
placed near them and spin their silken cocoons.
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 This process is achieved by the worm through a dense fluid secreted from its structural
glands, resulting in the fiber of the cocoon.
 The silk is a continuous filament comprising fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary
glands in the head of each larva.

Stages of production
The stages of production are as follows:
1. The silk moth lays thousands of eggs.
2. The silk moth eggs hatch to form larvae or caterpillars, known as silkworms.
3. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves.
4. Having grown and molted several times silkworm weaves a net to hold itself
5. It swings its head from side to side in a figure '8' distributing the saliva that will form silk.
6. The silk solidifies when it contacts the air.
7. The silkworm spins approximately one mile of filament and completely encloses itself in a cocoon
in about two or three days. The amount of usable quality silk in each cocoon is small. As a result
about 2500 silkworms are required to produce a pound of raw silk)
8. The silk is obtained by brushing the undamaged cocoon to find the outside end of the filament.
9. The silk filaments are then wound on a reel. One cocoon contains approximately 1,000 yards of
silk filament. The silk at this stage is known as raw silk.

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 Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles.
 Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has
been used for textile manufacturing.
 Now a day’s sericulture has become one of the most important cottage industries in
Japan, India, China, Korea, Brazil, Russia, Italy and France. Recently, this industry is
introduced to Ethiopia.

2.1.1. Strains of silkworms

Silk Moth: silk producing insect belong to the following systematic position.
Phylum-------Arthropoda
Class----------Insecta
Order---------Lepidoptera
Family-------Bombicidae and Saturnidae

The most common domesticated silkworm are:

1. Mulberry silkworm-Bombyx mori:
 It belongs to the family Bombycidae.
 It feeds on mulberry leaves.
 The silk produces from this silkworm is white in color.
 This specie is well domesticated native to China and account for about 95% of the world
production.

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2. Eri silkworm- Philosamea ricini:

 It belongs to the family Saturnidae.
 It feed on castor leaves.
 Cocoons cannot be reeled as mulberry and so it has to be spun.
 Eri silkworm domesticated specie which ranks in second in silk production.
3. Tasser silkworm-Antheraea paphia:
 It belongs to the family Saturnidae.
 The caterpillar feeds on oak, sal, ber and fig leaves.
 The cocoon produced by this moth is hard and the size of hen’s egg.
 The silk is brown in color.
 The tasser silk industry is not reached up to the level of mulberry silkworm.
4. Muga silkworm-Antherae assama:
 It belongs to the family Saturnidae.
 It feed on Machilus plant.
➧Non-mulberry silkworms are universally known as forest or wild silkworms.

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2.1.2. Life cycle of silkworms (Bombyx mori)

 The life cycle of Bombyx mori demonstrates the most advanced form of
metamorphosis called Holometabolous. Has four distinct stages of development; egg,
larva, pupa and adult.
 The number of generations per year or season depends on the voltinism of the
silkworm strain and environmental conditions.
 Under natural conditions, silkworm producing
o One generation per year are univoltine,
o Two generation in a year are bivoltine, and
o More than two generation per year are multivoltine.
➧The B. mori species in Ethiopia are bivoltines and four molters.
The silkworm is diocecious, i.e., the sexes are separate. The adult stage is reproductive
stage where adults mate and female lay eggs.
 Moths are flightless and lack functional mouth parts, so are unable to feed.
 Adult life time is 3-5days.
 The adult is about 2.5 cm in length and pale creamy white in color.
 Just after emergence the adult male moth copulates with the female moth.
 Few hours later the male die.

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◉Egg laying:
 Just after copulation the female start laying eggs and it is completed in 1-24 hours.

 One moth lays 400-500 eggs depending up on the climatic conditions and the supply of
food to the caterpillar from which the female moth is obtained.
 The egg laying is always in form of cluster and covered with gelatinous secretion of the
female moth which helps them in proper attachment.
 On average, the egg period lasts 9-18 days and hatch into larva called as caterpillar.

◉Caterpillar:
o The larva is commonly called a silkworm, is host specific to mulberry.
o The newly hatched caterpillar is 0.3 cm in length and pale yellowish white in color.
o The caterpillars are provided with well-developed mandibles.
o They undergo 4 molting and the resultant caterpillars are referred as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 instar
caterpillars.
o The first instar feeds for the first 3 days, sleep next 18 hours and moult for one day.
o The second and the third instar feeds for 4 days and sleep for 24 and 36 hours respectively and
molt for a day.
o After the 3rd molting the caterpillar feeds for 5-7 days, sleeps and molts.
o The 5th instar feeds voraciously and grows for 8-10 days and increases ten thousand times
compared to the size of hatching.
o The period to complete the larval stage takes 17-45 days after hatching.
o The full grown is 7.5 cm in length it stops feeding and undergoes pupation.

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◉Pupa:
o The caterpillar stop feeding and move towards corner among the leaves and secret a sticky
fluid through the silk gland.
o The secreted fluid comes out trough spinneret (a narrow pore situated in the hypopharynx) and
takes a form of long fine silk thread which hardens on exposure to air
o The secretions wrapped around the body of the caterpillar in the form of a covering called as
cocoon.
Cocoon: It is the white colored bed of pupa.

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2.1.3. Rearing Of Silkworms

 The practice of rearing silkworms for obtaining silk is called silkworm rearing.
 Silkworm rearing is governed by three factors; labor, adequate supply of mulberry
leaves and rearing facilities.
 When these conditions are fulfilled it is possible to produce silkworms five or six times
per year.
 Silkworm larvae are highly sensitive to environmental conditions.

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 Temperature, light humidity, chemicals, noise pollution, etc. influence the growth and
development of larvae as well as spinning of the grown up larvae.

Silkworm Rearing Facilities and Appliance

◉ Rearing house: the rearing house should be free from pollution and easy to disinfect,
with good ventilation and suitable temperature 250C and 80% RH.
◉ Rearing stand: rearing stands are used to keep rearing trays containing silkworm.
 Normally the rearing stand is designed for 10 trays per stand.
 According Josef (2004), the rearing stand should be 2.5m height, 1.5m length, 1m width and a
space of 15cm-20cm between the two trays.

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◉ Rearing trays: the rearing tray is where silkworms are kept.

 It can have circular or rectangular shape. Usually they can be made up of wood/bamboo.
 The circular trays have a diameter of 1.1- 1.4m with a depth of 7.5cm and the rectangular tray
90cm length, 70cm width and 75cm depth.
◉ Paraffin paper: this is a thick paper coated with paraffin wax a melting point of 550C.
 This is used to cover the rearing tray in order to avoid drying of the leaves and to maintain the
required humidity.
◉ Foam rubber strips: Foam rubber strips are dipped in water and kept around the rearing
beds to maintain optimum humidity.
 If it is not possible to get foam rubber strips, newspapers with appropriate size can be
used to maintain the humidity which is very important for the young age of silkworms.
◉ Chopsticks: 17-20cm long, thin and tapering at one end. It is used to spread out young
silkworm on rearing beds with hygiene and minimum damage to the delicate larvae.
◉ Feathers: This is used for brushing newly hatched larva and also when changing beds in
earlier stages.
◉ Chopping board: these are used for cutting mulberry leaves for feeding.
◉ Chopping knives: these are used for cutting mulberry leaves.
◉ Foot cleaning tray: this is kept at the entrance of rearing house. A pad of cloth soaked
with 2% formaldehyde solution is kept inside the tray to disinfect feet or shoes.
◉ Mountage: this used to facilitate cocoon spinning and the production of high quality
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cocoon.

Rearing Silkworm
 After preparing rearing equipment, selection of productive and healthy species of moth
is necessary.
 The species used for silk production must be free of any disease.
 These are shoot rearing, stand rearing and floor rearing;
o Shoot rearing: the worms are reared on big shoot, branches placed on the wood rack stand.
o Floor rearing: the worms are reared on the floor. The site should be on high and dry land.
o Rearing by trays: in this method of rearing a stand usually with 10 shelves on which the
rearing trays are placed is used.

2.1.4. Treatment and Disposal of Cocoons

 After attaining full growth, the final instar worm cease to feed, excretes faeces and
begin to excrete the silk have for spinning cocoons.
 Such worms considered mature and they should be picked and transferred to a
mountage for spinning cocoons.
 Harvesting of the silkworm cocoon is the final stage of the process of silkworm rearing

 Cocoon should be harvested following complete pupation.

 The appropriate harvesting day is be fifth day in tropical countries like Ethiopia.
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Economic importance of Silk

 Sericulture is an important tool for development of a country.
 It is labor intensive and suited for developing countries like Ethiopia for income
generation and self-employment.
 It can be practiced as subsidiary cottage industry.
 Raw silk is used for the preparation of garments, parachutes cords, fishing lines, sieve
for flour mills, insulation coils for telephone and tires of racing cars.

2.2. Apiculture
◉ Apiculture is concerned with the industrial aspect of the honeybee, which also includes
its biological processes.
 Honey bees are highly organized social insects. It belongs to the following systematic
position
Phylum……….Arthropoda
Class……..…….Insecta
Order…………….Hymenoptera
Family… … … … . Apidae
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Subfamily…………Apinae
Genus………………..Apis
2.2.1. Life history of Honey bees
 In Ethiopia mostly Apis mellifera is found to be the best species for commercial
purpose because it can be easily domesticated and can be improved by breeding.
 Apis melliefera species were originated from the original homeland of Ethiopia.
 As a result of genetic and impact of environmental features on the existing Apis
mellifera species for many years passed, as investigated, about five sub-species or races
of honeybee races were found to exist in Ethiopia.
 These are: Apis mellifera monticola, Apis mellifera yementica, Apis mellifera
scutellata, Apis mellifera bandasii and Apis mellifera woyi-gambella. A Woyi-
Gambella.
Honeybee castes
 A highly organized division of labour is found in honey bees.
 A colony may have 40,000 to 50, 000 individuals.
 Every honeybee colony comprises of a single queen, a few hundred drones and several
thousand worker castes of honey bees.
 Queen is a fertile female, worker is a sterile female and the drone is a male bee.
Duties of a Queen
 The queen arises from fertilized egg and larva specially fed on royal jelly.
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Commonly one queen per colony is found.

 She alone lays eggs and is the mother of all the members of the hive.

 Commonly one queen will be present in one colony and she is attended by many
workers.
 She receives royal jelly and her sole function is egg lying.

 When she loses egg laying capacity, new queen will emerge.

 The queen substance if present in sufficient quantity performs the following functions.

Duties of a drone
 Drones are male bee developed from unfertilized egg.
 The drones do not work and if not feed by workers, they will die.
 They live about 5 weeks and their important duty is to fertilize the queen.
 They cannot collect nectar or pollen and they do not possess a sting.
Duties of a worker
 The worker bees are sterile females arising from fertile eggs laid by the queen.
 The adult life span is around 6 weeks and can be divided into: first three weeks- house hold duty
and the rest of the life- out door duty.
House hold duty
 Build comb with wax secretion from wax glands.
 Feed the young larvae with royal jelly secreted from hypo pharyngeal gland.
 Feed older larvae with bee-bread (pollen+ honey) Feeding queen and drones.
 Cleaning, ventilating and cooling the hive and guarding the hive.
 Evaporating nectar and storing honey.
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Outdoor duties
During the last phase of life, probably three weeks the worker performs the outdoor duties.
These are:
 Collecting nectar, pollen, propolis and water.
 Ripening honey in honey stomach.

2.2.2. Bee behavior

1. Foraging
 Worker bees visit flowers and collect nectar. This process of collecting food is known
as foraging.
2. Swarming
 The behaviour of the honeybee to come out of the hive in large number is called
swarming. Swarming is a natural method of colony multiplication in which a part of the
colony migrates to a new site to make a new colony.

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 In preparation to a swarm, a large number of queen and drone cells are constructed.
Then, the old queen leaves the hive to establish a new one, accompanied by a large
number of older workers.
Supersedure: When an old queen is unable to lay sufficient eggs or when she lays many
unfertilized eggs, she will be replaced by newly constructed queen cells in the middle of
the comb.
Emergence queen
 In the event of death of the queen, the eggs (less than 2½ days old) in worker cells fed
with abundant royal jelly and covered into queen.
 In this case many queen cells are built in the middle of the comb.
 The first queen which comes out of the emergency queen cells kills other stages of
queen inside the cells and then goes for mating.
3. Absconding
 Absconding swarms leave an empty hive. When all of the bees including the queen
leave the hive in search of a new home.
 This is very different from swarming. Swarming is a reproductive process in which one
colony splits and becomes two.
4. Communication in Bees
 Bees are able to do so largely through their senses of touch and smell.
 Bees communicate using various pheromones. In addition the bees also communicate

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by performing certain dances.

 When scout bees return to the box after foraging they communicate to the other forages
present in the box about the direction and distance of the food source from the hive by
performing dances.
The important types of dances are mentioned below.
◉ Round dance: is used to indicate a short distance (Less than 50m).
 The bee runs in circle, first in one direction and then in opposite direction, (Clockwise
and anticlockwise).
◉ Tail wagging dance: is used to indicate long distance (more than 50m).
 Here the bee makes two half circles in opposite directions with a straight run in
between.
 During the straight run, the bee shakes its abdomen from side to side.
 The direction of food source is conveyed by the angle at the dancing bee makes
between its straight run and top of the hive which is the same as between the direction
of the food and direction of the sun.
 The bees, can know the position of the sun even if it is cloudy.

2.2.3. Bee keeping

 Bee keeping is management of honey bees for commercial production of honey and
other products.
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 Honey bees and their usefulness are known to man from prehistoric times. Apis
mellifera is the most commonly domesticated species of honey bees, in Ethiopia.
2.2.4. Methods of Beekeeping
There are two types of beekeeping methods. These are:
➧Indigenous method: 1) Wall or fixed hive, it is natural comb build by the bees in a wall
2) Movable hive, it comprises of hollow wood logs, empty boxes.
➧Modern method: to overcome the draw backs of indigenous method advanced and more
scientific method are evolved which provide high yield.

Types of beehives in Ethiopia

There are three types of bee hives used for practical beekeeping in Ethiopia. Traditional
hives are widely in use among the rural community above all others.
1. Traditional hive
 It is made up of different materials locally available and having different shape and size in
different regions of Ethiopia.
 Traditional or local hives are practically used by keeping hived bees near home yard, and by
placing them on tree branches in which some trees are as long as 50 meters and above.
2. Transitional hives
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 Transitional hives in use is like Kenya top bar hive but slightly modified.
 Some of the transitional hives are constructed with locally available materials, some
purely made from timber while some from timber and bamboo mixed.
3. Improved Box hive
 Zander, langstroth and polyurethane hive types are used but the one largely in use is
the zander hive type.

Economic importance of Honeybees

 "If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life
left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man."
 From this quotation it is clear that honeybees are so vital for sustainable ecological balance.
 The economic importance of honey bees is not only due to the products they produce, but also
they serve a more important role as pollinators.
 Bees are the main animal pollinators of crops worldwide. Bees do more than just make honey.
 Honey bees also produce wax used for polishes and candles.
 Moreover, they also produce royal jelly, bee venom, propolis and pollen.
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Importance of Honey
A. Food value: it is estimated that 200 gm of honey provided nourishment as much as 11.5
liters of milk, or 1.6 Kg of cream or 330gm meat.
B. Medicinal value: Honey is mildly laxative, antiseptic and sedative. It helps to increase
hemoglobin. It is used to prevent cough, cold and fever, as blood purifies cure ulcer of
mouth and alimentary canal.
C. Other uses: Other than food and medicine, honey is used in many other ways. It is used
in the preparation of bread, biscuits, cake and alcoholic drinks.
Importance of Wax
 Bees wax is very useful byproduct of bee keeping industry.
 Bees wax is used in the preparation of cosmetics, church candle, insulators, polishes,
and many other lubricants.
2.3. Lac Culture
 Lac is obtained from numerous insects.

 However, the scientific account of the lac insect was given by J. Kerr in 1782 and the
first scientific name given to it was Tachardia lacca after the French missionary,
Father Tachardia. It was later changed to Laccifer lacca Kerr.
 Lac insects give three valuable products namely, lac-dye, lac-wax and lac (resin).
India is the largest producer of lac products. The systematic position of the insect is,
Phylum……………..Arthropoda
Class …………………. Insecta
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Order ……………………….Hemiptera
Family………………………….Lacciferidae
Species………………………………Tacharida lacca/ Laccifer lacca/
It is a resinous, crawling scale-insect which inserts its beak in to plant tissues, sucks
juice and grows and secretes lac from the end of the body.
 Its own body ultimately gets covered with lac.

Male; It is red in color and 1.2 to 1.5 mm in length. It secrets white creamy lac. It has
reduced eyes and 10 segmented antennae. The mouth parts are piercing and sucking type.
Female; It is larger than the male and measures about 4 to 5 mm in length. The head,
thorax and abdomen are not distinct.

Life cycle
 Each female, just after fertilization lays about 200-500 eggs in a lac cell in which she
is enclosed. After 6 months eggs hatch out nymphs.
 The nymphs emerge in mass and the event is known as Swarming.

 Nymph; At the time of emergence the nymph are about 0.5 mm in length, red colored
and boat shaped.
 The head has paired antenna, ocelli piercing and sucking type of mouth parts.

 After the emergence the nymphs move to tender parts of the host plants.

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 Some of the host plants are Acasia nilotica, zizyphus, ficus religiosa.
 The quality of the lac is directly related to the quality of the host plant.
 So far no artificial product has been able to replace the lac.

 Lac cultivation is a complicated process, so the cultivators should know well about
the inoculation, swarming period and harvesting.

Harvesting of lac
The process of collection of ready lac from the host plant is known as harvesting.
1. Immature harvesting - harvesting before swarming is known as immature harvesting
and the lac thus obtained is called as ARI LAC.
2. Mature harvesting - the collection of crop after swarming is known as mature
harvesting and the lac obtained is called as MATURE LAC.
Properties of lac
1. It is not soluble in water but soluble in alcohol. This property of lac has great value

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for insulation of electrical connections.

2. Lac is easily fusible on heating.
3. It has adhesive quality.
4. It has binding property when mixed with alcohol.
5. It is soluble in weak alkali like ammonia.
6. Lac is a bad conductor of heat.

Economic importance
1. It is used as a filling material in gold ornaments.
2. Lac is used in polishes, paints etc
3. It is utilized in the preparation of toys, buttons, artificial leathers, photographic
materials and lithographic ink.
4. It is used as an insulation material for electric goods.
5. It is also used in industrial manufacture of ammunition and fireworks.
6. It is commonly used as sealing wax.
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Unit Three
Medical and Veterinary Important Insects
 Disease caused by insects dominates many parts of the world.
 Among the ten top diseases in the world more than six of them are caused by insect
vectors.
 The most significant insect transmitted disease is malaria, which continues to be one of
the most important threats to human health worldwide.
 The discipline which is focused upon insects and arthropods that impact human
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health is medical entomology.

 A large number of insect species may be external, or temporary internal, parasites of
humans.
 But by far the greatest importance of insects that parasitize humans is their role as
vectors of pathogenic microorganisms.
 The pathogen is picked up when a parasitic insect feeds and may or may not go
through specific stages of its life cycle in the insect.
 Bacteria and viruses are directly transmitted to new hosts, an insect serving as a
mechanical vector, whereas for protozoa, tapeworms and nematodes, an insect serves
as biological vector in which an essential part of the parasites’ life cycle occurs.
 Although some insects species attacking humans (Medical vectors) also attack other
animals (veterinary vectors).
Culicidae (Mosquitoes)
 Furthermore, there are some 3200 species of mosquito belonging to 37 genera, all
belong to family Culicidae.
 Mosquitoes have worldwide distribution they occur throughout tropics and temperate
regions.
 The most important vector species belong to the genera Anopheles, Culex, and Aedes.
 Anopheles species are the vectors of malaria as well as vectors of filiariasis.
 Certain Culex species transmit Wuchereria bancrofti.

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 The genes Aedes consists important vectors of yellow fever, dengue, encephalitis
viruses.

3.1. Anopheline mosquitoes (Anophelinae)

 Anopheles mosquitoes occur almost worldwide, with the exception of cold temperate
areas.
 However, the four species of human pathogenic Plasmodium are transmitted
significantly in nature only by some 30 species of Anopheles.
 The most important disease carried by Anopheles mosquito is malaria.
 Anopheles is more likely to transmit the malaria parasites from one person to another.
 Most Anopheles mosquitoes, the primary malaria vectors in Africa, A. gambiae and A.
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funestus, are strongly anthropophilic.

 Females are attracted to host by various stimuli emanating from them, such as body
odours, carbon dioxide and heat.
 Female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles, including A. gambiae, is main vectors for
transmitting malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, which is responsible for the
death of more than a million of people annually.
o gambiae species parasitize humans almost exclusively and are allegedly attracted
to smelly feet.
 Species which frequently enter houses to feed are said to be endophagic in their
feeding habitats, whereas those that bite their hosts outside houses are called
exophagic.
 After taking blood meal mosquitoes seek resting places in which to shelter during
digestion of blood.
 Species which rest inside houses are called endophilic while those who rest outside of
the house are exophilic.
 This biting behaviour is very important in the epidemiology of disease transmission.
Damage
 The Anopheles mosquito transmits the four parasites that cause human malaria.
 Moreover the mosquito is also a vector to arthropod-borne virus and Wuchereria
bancrofti. They do also contribute a biting nuisance.
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Control
 Control measures can be done either at the immature aquatic stages, or adult, or at both stages
simultaneously.
 Insecticidal spraying of larval breeding sites.
 When properly used, larvicides helped to reduce malaria transmission.
 Certain predatory fish including Gambusia species used to reduce larval population.
 Drainage of swamps and marshes area also reduces malaria transmission.
 The most common control focused on the adult is residual house-spraying and insecticide-
impregnated bed-nets.

3.2. Psychodidae (Sand flies)

 Sand flies are an important blood sucking small insect which transmits a parasite
which cause Leshimaniasis disease with approximately two million population at risk
of infection.
 The most important specie is Phlebotomus papatasi.
 They are responsible vectors of Leshimaniasis and sand fly fever.
Sandflies: Family Psychodidae, Subfamily Phlebotominae: Phlebotomus, (vectors of
Leishmania).

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The females are haematophagous but also take sugar meals from plant sources or aphid
honeydew.
 Males may also feed on sugar sources but do not take blood.
Damage
 They are vectors of Leshimaniasis and sand fly fever. They are also serious biting
nuisance.
Control
 Common insecticides such as DDT, Malathion and proxoxur, synthetic pyrethroids
can be used to control sand flies. Personal protection by applying repellents, mesh
screens or nets.

3.3. Simulidae (Black flies)

 Black flies spread Onchocerca volvulus, a parasitic roundworm.
 Onchoceriasis, the disease caused by infestation of these worms, may cause blindness
in peoples of Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America.
➧Blackflies: Family Simuliidae, genus Simulium (vectors of Onchocerca volvulus)
Blackflies of the genus Simulium are small dark flies with a characteristic thoracic hump.
 They are active during the day and only the females suck blood.

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Damage
 They can cause very serious biting problems. Above all they are vectors of
onchoceriasis, often called river blindness.
Control
 Blakflies can be controlled by application of insecticides, DDT.

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3.4. Ceratopogonidae (Bitting Midges)

 The biting midges belong to the family Ceratopogonidae.
 The most common biting midges are Culicoides spp.
 Culicoides spp are vicious biters and can cause intense irritation and annoyance.
 Moreover, these species are vectors of the filarial worms Mansonella perstans.
 Only the females take blood and, as in mosquitoes, females and males have different
antennae (male plumose; female non-plumose).
Damage
 Few species of Culicoides species are vectors of parasites to human.
 They are known as vectors of Mansonella perstans.
 Ceratopogonidae are not considered very important vector of disease to human,
whereas they can be of considerable veterinary importance.
Control
 Insecticidal spraying of larval breeding sites may reduce the larval stage.
 Limited personal protection can be achieved.
 Thermal insecticidal aerosols may be used to kill adults resting in vegetation.

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3.5. Tabanidae (Horseflies)

 Tabanids are large biting flies generally called horseflies.
 Horse flies are vectors of the filarial worm Loa loa.
Horseflies: Family Tabanidae Chrysops vectors of Loa, Tabanus
 Tabanid genera of medical and veterinary importance are Chrysops, Tabanus and
 Haematopota.
 Only female Chrysops feed on blood although both sexes also feed on plant sugars
 Chrysops are of medical importance as vectors of Loa a filarial parasite of humans.
 The two important species of Chrysops dimidiata and C. silace - are diurnal feeders
(Loa microfilaraemia in human blood).
 Most species feed outdoors although C. silacea can enter houses.
 Tabanus species transmit non- pathogenic trypanosomes, e.g. T. evansi of horses and
camels in North Africa and Asia and T. yiyax in S. America.
Damage
 The only important and cyclical disease transmitted by humans by tabanids is loiasis,
caused by the parasitic nematode Loa loa.
Control
 Efficient drainage reduces the numbers of breeding habitats.
 Some level of local control can sometimes be achieved by employing attractant traps to catch
adults.
 But there is no really effective control method against tabanids.
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3.6. Glossindae (Tsetse Flies)

 The tsetse flies, Glossina spp. are important blood-feeding flies found in Africa.
 Tsetse flies serve as the intermediate hosts for several species of trypanosomes that
cause fatal diseases of both domestic animals (nagana) and humans (African sleeping
sickness).
Tsetse fly: Family Glossinidae, Glossina vectors of African trypanosomes, Trypanosoma
Both sexes are haematophagous and are the vectors of pathogenic trypanosomes of humans
and domestic animals.
Damage
 All species of Glossina are potential vectors of African trypanosomiasis to humans,
which is commonly known as sleeping sickness.
Control
 Tsetse flies can be controlled by catching and trapping (tsetse traps), bush clearing, fly
screens, repellents, insecticides, and sterile male release techniques.

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3.7. Muscidae ( House flies)

 House flies (family Muscidae) can carry the pathogens for dysentary (Shigella
dysentariae), typhoid fever (Eberthella typhosa), and cholera (Vibrio comma) on their
feet and mouth parts.
 They have also been suspected as vectors of the viral agent that causes poliomyelitis.
Damage
 House flies transmit large number of diseases to humans owing to their habits of
visiting faeces and other unhygienic matter.
 Pathogens can be transmitted by contaminated feet, body hairs and mouth parts, or by
flies vomiting on food during feeding, or by defecation on food.
 House flies can transmit viruses of polio, trachoma and infectious hepatitis as well as
rickettsiae, numerous bacterial diseases (Shigella, Salmonella), and protozoan
parasites.
Control
 Physical, mechanical, environmental sanitation and application of pesticides can be
used as means of control.

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Unit Four
Insect Pests Categories and Causes for Outbreak
 The classification of an insect as a pest is a subjective one, based on its potential
damage to human purposes.
 Pest insects can damage agricultural crops, consume or damage harvested food, cause
illness and reduce productivity of agricultural animals, or vector human disease.
4.1. Categories of Pests
What is a pest?
 An insect whose population increases to such an extent as to cause economic losses to
crops or a nuisance and health hazard to man and his livestock will be declared a pest.
 An insect may be a pest at one place or in one season but may not be so at another
place or in the next season.
 Insects are pests when they are sufficiently numerous to cause economic damage.
Therefore, being a pest is a matter of insect population and behaviors.
 Pests are organisms which impose burdens on human life by causing injury to crop
plants, forests, humans and domesticated animals or damage stored products.
 Depending upon the importance, pests may be agricultural, forest, household, medical
and veterinary pests.

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Categories of Pests
 Insect pests were categorized into two groups as endemic and epidemic pests based
on their level of infestation.
o Pests which are suddenly outburst in a severe form in a region at a particular time
are known as epidemic pests.
o While pests which exist in a low level, regularly and confined to a particular area are
known as endemic pest.
 Furthermore insect pests can be also grouped based on occurrence as a
o regular pest (Occur frequently),
o occasional pest (occur seldom),
o seasonal pest (occur during particular season) and
o persistent pests (occur throughout the year).
➧In addition insect pests can be also grouped based on parameters of the population.
The lowest population density that will cause economic damage is known as economic
injury level (EIL).
o Key pest: These are pests where their population lies above EIL. They are known as
most severe pests.
o Major pest: These are pests where their population lies very close to EIL.
o Minor pest: these are pests where their population is below EIL.

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4.2. Causes for Outbreak of Pests and Losses caused by pests

Causes for Outbreak
o Insects are designated as pests only when they are sufficiently numerous to cause
economic losses.
o Two species of insects may be equally noxious as individual and, yet, one is called a
pest and the other is not, because of the density attained.
o This increase in the number of a species of insect is termed as a pest outbreak.
o Activity of human beings which upsets the biotic balance of ecosystem is the prime
cause for pest outbreak.
o Pests which were feed on forests will be out of food and this pushes the pests to feed
on other crop plants.
Some of the reasons are:-
1. Destruction of the natural enemy affects the natural control mechanism and this lead to
pest outbreak.
2. Large-scale and long-term cultivation of the same crop over an area facilitated rapid
population increases in certain plant-feeding species.
3. Large scale monoculture of crops or of stock animals makes insects thrive and multiply
fast.
4. Introduction of new pest in new environment; In a new area where a new pest is introduced
in absence of their natural enemies pests multiply.
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5. Accidental introduction of an insect by travelers or transport into a new area/place

lacking its natural enemies allows it to breed in an unrestricted manner.
6. Large scale storage of food grains; large scale storage provides large enough source of
food and serves as reservoir for storage pests.

4.3. Methods of Assessing Yield loss

Assessments may be made by surveys of both traditional methods and improved methods,
and be followed by quantitative, technical and financial comparisons.
Survey
Three types of loss surveys are used to assess yield loss.
General survey: A preliminary examination of specific problem points, and on-site
appraisal of measures likely to reduce losses. This type of survey should be conducted
before any loss- reduction project commences.
Pilot survey: In this type of survey, a quantitative approach is based on established
sampling techniques, but a completely scientific sampling design is not followed.
The aim of a pilot survey is to establish an estimate of the losses and provide data on their
causes.
Reliable survey: In this type of survey the objective is to obtain statistically reliable
quantitative data on losses at village, regional or national level. A stratified random
sampling programme and statistically acceptable method of sample analysis are essential.

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4.5 . Pest Surveillance and Forecasting

Pest Surveillance
➧The constant watch on the population dynamics of pests, its incidence and damage on
each crop at fixed intervals to forewarn the farmers to take up timely crop protection
measures is referred as pest surveillance.
➧The main components of pest surveillance are determination of the level of incidence of
the pest species, the loss caused by the incidence and the economic benefits the control
will provide.
Purpose of Pest Surveillance
 To know existing and new pest species
 To assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop
 To study the influence of weather parameters on pest
 To study changing pest status (Minor to major)
 To assess natural enemies and their influence on pests
 To know effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest

o For taking critical management decision on insect pest estimation of changes in insect
distribution and abundance, information about insects, life history and influence of
biotic and abiotic factors on pest population is must.
o Pest surveillance as a tool it helps entomologists to gather the above mentioned
information regarding the pest.
o Based on these information then forecasting of the pest is made.

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Pest Forecasting
o Forecasting of pest incidence or outbreak based on information obtained from pest
surveillance.
o It is very essential in predicting pest outbreak which needs control measure and
determining the suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection.
o Forecasting is done based on various factors which affects the pest.
o The abundance of the pest species survey should be conducted.
o This can be done by assessing of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots
representing larger area or from a fixed plot selected in a field.
o This type of survey provides as information on pest level over large area.
Sampling Techniques
➧Absolute sampling: To count all the pests occurring in a plot. Relative sampling: To
measure pest in terms of some values which can be compared over time and space e.g.
Light trap catch, Pheromone trap
Methods of sampling
a. In situ counts - Visual observation on number of insects on plant canopy.
b. Knock down - Collecting insects from an area by removing from crop and counting.
c. Netting - Use of sweep net for hoppers, grasshopper.
d. Trapping - Light trap - Phototropic insects, Pheromone trap - Species specific, Sticky trap -
Sucking insects
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Unit Five
Pest Management and its Importance
 The history of pest control probably began with the first human who ever swatted a
mosquito or picked off a louse.
 From the fossil record, we know that all major taxa of biting flies and external parasites
already existed by the time Homo sapiens first appeared on earth.
 Biological controls, predatory ants, were used in China as early as 1200 B.C. to protect
citrus groves from caterpillars and wood boring beetles.
 A mechanical control, hand labor, was used extensively in early pest control, but
cultural, physical, and chemical practices also evolved.
 Now a days, improved pest management techniques/methods and integrated pest
management are introduced.

Components of pest control

➧The control methods we use to prevent the insect pest population from reaching economic
injury level (EIL) is pest management.

Components of pest management

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➧There are various components of pest management and all of these tactics work in at least
one of the following ways:
1. Kill the pest directly -- usually by exposing it to lethal substances or unsuitable
environmental conditions;
2. Reduce the reproductive potential of a pest population -- often by modifying its
environment (biotic or abiotic) or by restricting its movement; and
3. Modify the pest's behavior to make it less troublesome (attract it, repel it, confuse it,
exclude it, mislead it).
➧Most of the control tactics that are commonly used today can be grouped into two broad
categories: natural controls and artificial (applied) controls.

5.1. Natural Control

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 By definition, a natural control may be any environmental factor that keeps a pest
population below its economic injury level.
 Examples might include geographic barriers, cold temperatures, or natural enemies that
keep population growth in check.
 Artificial controls, on the other hand, employ human interference to modify a pest's
distribution, behavior or physiology.
 The natural control goes on in nature without the intervention of man, while in applied it
is brought about by human activity.
 The natural factors that kept a check on pest populations are: climatic factors, physical
barriers, natural enemies and disease.

The main objectives of pest management are as follows:

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1. To reduce pest status below economic injury level.

2. To manage insects not only by killing them but also looking for any option which
can minimize their adverse effect such as preventing feeding, multiplication, dispersal
etc.
3. To use eco-friendly methods, this will maintain quality of environment (air, water, wild
life and plant life?)
4. To make maximum use of natural mortality factors, apply control measures only when
needed.
5. To use component in sustainable crop production.

Requirements for successful pest management programme

➧Before we applied any control option, it is must to consider the following factors for the
success of insect control.
Therefore one should have the knowledge of the following points:
 Correct identification of insect pests
 Biology of the pest
 Natural history and seasonal history of the pest
 Natural enemies and weather factors affecting pest population
 Finding out ETL for each pest in a crop
 Need and timing of control measure – Decision
 Available suitable control options
 Analysis of cost/benefit and benefit/risk of each control measure
 Farmer’s awareness and participation

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5.2. Cultural control

➧Cultural methods are simple agricultural or farm practices that a man has learnt by his
long experience.
These methods of cultural control include the following practices
 Crop rotation
 Intercropping
 Altering Timing
 Managed Application
 Sanitation
 Trap crops
Advantage of Cultural control
 No extra skill
 No costly inputs (No special equipments are required) and minimal cost
 Ecologically sound
 Good component in IPM
Disadvantage of Cultural control
 No complete control
 Prophylactic nature
 Timing decides success

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5.3. Physical and Mechanical Control

 Physical or mechanical control methods can be as simple as hand-picking.
5.3.1. Physical Control
 Physical control methods involve manipulation of physical factors in the environment
to prevent pest problems.
 These methods are particularly useful for destroying stored-grain pests and are listed
below:
1. Manipulation of temperature
2. Manipulation of moisture
3. Manipulation of light
4. Use of greasing material
5. Use of Abrasive dusts

5.3.2 Mechanical Control

 Mechanical methods employ manual devices and machines.
 These are time consuming and costlier, but give immediate results.
 The following are some of the methods practiced.
Mechanical destruction
 Hand picking:
 Shaking or beating branches:
 Crushing:
 Hopper dozer:
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Mechanical exclusion: barriers prevent access of pests to hosts.

 Wire-gauge screens
 Banding
 Netting
Advantage of mechanical control
 Home labour utilization
 Low equipment cost
 Ecologically safe
 High technical skill not required in adopting.

Disadvantage of mechanical control

 Labour intensive

 Rarely highly effective

 Limited application

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5.4. Biological control

 Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests by exposing them
to their natural enemies.
 In conventional usage, this term usually refers to the practice of rearing and releasing
natural enemies: parasites, predators or pathogens.
 Biocontrol agents include a wide variety of life forms, including vertebrates,
invertebrates, fungi and microorganisms.
 These beneficial species are common in most natural communities and although their
presence is often unnoticed, they help maintain the "balance of nature" by regulating
the density of their host or prey population.
 The simplest example is the use of cats to keep down the population of mice in our
houses.
5.4.1. Techniques of Biological Control
 Biocontrol agents include vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi and microorganisms.
 Biological pest control strives to reestablish this balance in one of these three
biological techniques:
1. Importation.
2. Conservation.
3. Augmentation.

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5.4.2. Qualities of an effective natural enemy

 Just because an insect is a predator or a parasite does not necessarily make it a good
biological control agent.
 Biocontrol agents are most effective when they exhibit the following characteristics:
1. Narrow host range
2. Climatic adaptability
3. Synchrony with host (prey) life cycle
4. High reproductive potential
5. Efficient search ability
6. Short handling time
7. Survival at low host (prey) density
5.4.3. Factors affecting Biological Control
The factors which affect success of biological control are:
1. Tolerance limit of crop to insect injury - Successful in crops with high tolerance limit.
2. Crop duration - Long duration crops highly suitable.
3. Indigenous or Exotic pest - Imported natural enemies more effective against introduced pest.
4. If alternate host available for natural enemies, control of target pest is less.
5. If unfavorable season occurs, reintroduction of natural enemies required
6. Presence of hyperparasites reduces effectiveness of biocontrol
7. Use of pesticides affects natural enemies. Selective insecticides less toxic to natural enemies
required.

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Advantage and Disadvantage of Biological Control

Advantage:
 Ecofriedly, no harm to the environment
 Increased diversity
 Good component of IPM

Disadvantage
 Complete control not achieved - Slow process
 Subsequent pesticide use restricted
 Expensive to culture many natural enemies
 Requires trained man power

5.5. Genetic Control/Sterile Insect Technique (SIR)

Introduction
Genetic control is a recent application of an old concept wherein genetically manipulated
insects are released among the wild populations to make the mating sterile or to introduce
lethal genes into the eggs of the females so that do not develop beyond a certain stage.

 Sterile insect technique is a control of pest population achieved by releasing large

number of sterilized male insects, which will compete with the normal males and
reduce the insect population in subsequent generation.
 The important difference from other management options id that SIR objective is to
drive a wild population to extinction.
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Requirements for SIRM

1. A method inducing sterility without impairing sexual behaviour of insects.
2. Mass rearing of the insects
3. Information on population density and its rate of increase
4. The released insects must not cause damage to the crops, livestock or human beings
5. Good intermingling of released and natural population
6. Releasing sterilized insects when the wild population is abundant
7. This method is effective against newly introduced pest or isolated insect population.
8. There should be high sterile to fertile ratio for quicker control.
Advantage of Genetic control
 Specific and so harmless to beneficial insects/non-targeted
 Non-polluting to the environment; and
 Efficient at a low population, density, and the treated insects being competent to search
out their mates even when their number is low.
Limitations of SIRM
1. Not effective against insects at high population density i.e., against insects that are
prolific breeders; and
2. Sterilizing and mutagenic effect of chemosterilants and irradiation cause problem in
higher animals and man (Carcinogenic and mutagenic).

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5.6. Chemical Control

 Insecticides are those substances which kill insects by their chemical action and this
method of control of insects is called as chemical control.
 DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichlorethane) in 1939, the insecticides used were either
inorganic or plant origin.
 Control may result from killing the insect or otherwise preventing it from engaging in
behaviors deemed destructive.
Pesticides: are chemicals used to kill pests
Insecticides can be grouped in various ways according to the mode of entry, mode of action
or chemical composition.
1. Based on Mode of Entry
a) Stomach poisons
b) Contact Poison
c) Fumigants
d) Systemic insecticides
2. Based on mode of action
a) Physical poison: Toxicant which brings about death insects by exerting a physical effect
b) Protoplasmic poison: Toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein.
c) Respiratory poison: Chemicals which inactivate respiratory enzymes.
d) Nerve poison: Chemicals inhibit impulse conduction.
e) Chitin inhibition: Chemicals inhibit chitin synthesis.
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3. Based on chemical nature

i. Elements, such as sulphur, phosphorus, mercury etc.

ii. Inorganic compounds such as lead arsenate, sodium fluosilcate, zinc phosphide, etc.

iii. Organic compounds: can be grouped into

 Compounds of plant origin such as pyrethrum, nicotine, rotenone, etc.
 Animal and mineral oils such as fish oil, diesel oil, etc.
 Synthetic organic compounds such as DDT, Malathion, carbaryl, etc.
iv. Poisonous gases such hydrogen cyanide, ethylene dichloride, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl bromide, phosphine, etc. used as fumigants.

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5.7. Integrated Pest Management

 Integrated pest control is defined as a system that in the context of associated
environment and the population dynamics of pest species, utilize all suitable techniques
and methods in as compatible manner as possible and maintains the pest populations at
level below those causing economic injury.
 IPM is a multidisciplinary ecological approach to the management of pest populations,
which utilizes a variety of control tactics compatibility in a single coordinated pest
management system.
IPM is recommended because of various reasons. Because IPM is:
1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides.
2. Outbreak of secondary pests.
3. Resurgence of target pests.
4. Environmental contamination and reduction in its quality.
5. Killing of non-target animals and natural enemies.
6. Human and animal health hazards.

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Unit Six
Pesticide and the Environment
Impact of Pesticides
 Pesticide effect on Water
 Pesticide effect on Air
 Impact on Soil
 Effect on Plants
 Effect on Animals
 Effect on Aquatic life
 Effect on Humans
Health and safety when handling pesticides
Protective Clothing and Equipment
 Wear elbow-length chemically resistant gloves
 wear long trousers and long-sleeved shirt and/or washable overalls;
 Eye protection (glasses)
 Washable hat, and
 Closed shoes or gumboots, at all times.
 An approved respirator should be used when handling volatile pesticides.
Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Insecticides
 Penetration of insecticides
 Specific susceptibility
 Weather conditions
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