Nervous System

A&P-II Unit-III

Objectives
At the end of this unit the learners will be able to:
• Define Nervous system.
• Briefly discuss organization of Nervous system.
• Define nerve & its types.
• Describe the structure and function of Neuron and
neuroglia.
• Identify the principal parts of the brain i.e. Hind brain, Mid
brain & Fore brain.
• Discuss the structure & function of:
--Brain stem (Mid brain, pons & medulla oblongata)
--Cerebellum
• Describe the structure of cerebrum in terms of:
-- Lobes (sulci and gyrus)
--Functional areas
Objectives
• Describe the three meninges covering the brain & spinal
cord.
• Identify the ventricles of the brain.
• Briefly explain the formation, circulation, reabsorption &
functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Objectives
• Discuss the general & cross sectional structure of the spinal cord.
• Describe reflex arc.
• Discuss the distribution of the spinal nerves and spinal plexus.
• Discuss the cranial nerves in terms of:
• Central connection
• Peripheral connection
• Functions
• Define Autonomic Nervous System
 • Discuss the sympathetic and Para sympathetic Nervous system.

Nervous System
• Definition: The network of nerves and nerve fibers that
transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
• With a mass of only 2 kg, the nervous system is one of the
smallest and yet the most complex of the 11 body systems. It
is an intricate , highly organized network of billions of
neurons and even more neuroglia.
• The structures that make up the nervous system include the
brain, cranial nerves, and their branches, the spinal cord,
spinal nerves and their branches, ganglia, enteric plexuses
and sensory receptors.
• The skull encloses the brain, which contains about 100 billion
(1011) neurons.
• Twelve pairs (right and left) of cranial nerves emerging from the
base of the brain.
• The spinal cord connects the brain through the foramen
magnum of the skull and is protected by the bones of the vertebral
column.
• It contains about 100 million neurons. 31 pairs of spinal nerves
leave the spinal cord for specific region on the right or left side of
the body.
• Ganglia (swelling or knot) are small masses of nervous tissue,
consisting basically of neuron cell bodies that are located outside
the brain and spinal cord.
• Ganglia are closely associated with cranial and spinal nerves. In
the walls of organs of the GIT, extensive networks of neurons,
called enteric plexuses, help regulate the digestive system.
Functions of the Nervous System

• The nervous system carries out different functions like

smell, speech, storing, remembering past events. It controls
body movements and regulates the operation of internal
organs. All these diverse activities are grouped into three basic
functions such as sensory, integrative, and motor.
• Sensory function: Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli,
such as an increase in blood acidity, external stimuli, such as a
housefly sitting on your body part. Neurons called sensory or
afferent neurons (af=toward; ferrent=carried) carry this
sensory information into the brain and spinal cord through
cranial and spinal nerves.
• Integrative Function: The nervous system integrates
(processes) sensory information by analyzing and by making
decisions for appropriate responses. An important integrative
function is perception, the conscious awareness of sensory
stimuli. Perception occurs in the brain.
• Motor Function: Once the sensory information is
integrated, the nervous system gives an appropriate motor
response such as muscle contraction or gland secretion.
 • The neurons that serve this function are called motor or
efferent neurons.
• Motor neurons carry information from the brain toward the
spinal cord or effectors (muscles and glands). Stimulation of
the effectors by motor neurons causes muscles to contract
and glands to secrete.
Nervous Supporting Tissues (Neuroglia)

• Neuroglia (glia=glue) are cells of the nervous system that

perform various supportive functions.
• They outnumber neurons.
 • In contrast to neurons, they divide and multiply.
• Brain tumors arise from neuroglia, called glioma.
• There are six types of neuroglia.
• Four types found in the CNS are astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
• Other two types found in the PNS are Schwann, and satellite
cells.
Neuroglia of the CNS
Astrocytes (astro=star; cyte=cell)
• These star shaped cells are the largest and most numerous
of the neuroglia.
• The processes of astrocytes make contact with blood
capillaries, neurons, and the pia matter.

• When neurons are damaged, astrocytes form hardened

masses of scar tissue and fill space formerly occupied by
neurons. This process is called astrocytosis or sclerosis.
• Functions of Astrocytes:
• Astrocytes provide a supportive framework.
• Together with the endothelial cells of blood capillaries they
form a blood brain barrier (BBB) to isolate harmful materials
from CNS.
• They help in nourishing neurons.
• Regulate the chemical composition of tissue fluid.
• Take up excess neurotransmitters.
Astrocyte
Oligodendrocytes: (oligo=few; dendro=tree)
• They resemble astrocytes but have fewer processes.
• Their processes form myelin sheath around axons in the
brain and spinal cord.

Microglia:
• They are small cells with thinner processes.
• They function as phagocytes (macrophages).

Ependymal Cells (epen=above; dym=garment):

• They are cuboidal to columnar cells.
 • Arranged in a single layer.
• Possess microvilli and cilia.
Functions:
• They line cavities of brain and spinal cord.
• Secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and circulate it.
Neuroglia
 Neuroglia of PNS
Schwann Cells:
• They surround the axons in the PNS.
• Each cell encircles (myelinates) only one axon.
• They form myelin sheath around the axons.
• They aid in regeneration of damaged axons of PNS.
Satellite cells:
• These flat cells surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS
and form ganglia.
• They regulate the exchange of materials between neuronal
cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
Schwann Cell
PNS Axon Regeneration
Nerve
Nerve
 Neuron

Properties of Neuron
Special characteristics of neurons
– Longevity – can live and function for a lifetime
– Amitotic— Do not divide
– High metabolic rate – require abundant oxygen and glucose

Properties of Neuron
– Excitability—the ability to respond to the stimulus and
convert it into an action potential.
– Conductivity: The transmission of nerve impulse.
 – Secretion: When the electrical signal reaches the end of a
nerve fiber, the neuron secretes a chemical neurotransmitter
that stimulates the next cell.

Action potential (nerve impulse) is an electrical signal that

propagates (travels) along the surface of the membrane of a
neuron.

Parts of the Neuron

• Most neurons have three parts

1. A Cell Body
2. Dendrites
 3. An Axon
• Cell Body or soma or Perikaryon:
– Contains nucleus and organelles

Neuron Processes
• Dendrites: short, often highly branched.
– Receptive regions of the neuron
• Axon: Long cytoplasmic process carrying nerve impulse
– Neuron has only one axon
– Transmits impulse away from soma toward another neuron,
muscle fiber or gland
The processes (dendrites and axon) are collectively called neurites
– Axon hillock: cone shaped elevation of Axon
– Initial segment: the closest part to the axon hillock Note:
Axons vary in length from 1 mm long up to 1 meter.

– Axoplasm: Cytoplasm of axon

– Axolemma: plasma membrane of axon
– Axon terminals or telodendria: Terminal branches of axon
– synaptic end bulbs or synaptic knobs: Bulb shaped structures
on the tip of axon terminals with synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters

– Synapse: The site of communication between two neurons

or a neuron and an effector.
 Structural Classification of Neurons
Multipolar – possess more than two processes
• Numerous dendrites and one axon
• Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this type
Bipolar – possess two processes
• One main dendrite and one axon
• Rare neurons – found in some special sensory organs
Unipolar – possess a single short process
Neurons Classified by Structure
Figure 12.10a–c
 Classification of Nerve Fibres
• Structure based
• Myelinated and non-myelinated • Distribution based
• Somatic and visceral/autonomic
• Origin based
• Cranial and Spinal
• Function based
• Sensory, Motor , and interneuron
• Polarity based
• Multipolar, Bipolar, and Unipolar
• Secretion based
• Adrenergic (secrete noradrenalin) and Cholinergic (Ach)
• Diameter and Conduction based (Erlanger and Gasser)
• Type A, Type B, and Type C
• A and B are myelinated while C is not
• A is the thickest while C is the thinnest

Functional Classification of Neurons

1. Sensory neurons are sensitive to various stimuli. There are
sensory neurons in the skin, muscles, joints, and organs that indicate
pressure, temperature, and pain. There are more specialized neurons
in the nose and tongue that are sensitive to the molecular shapes we
perceive as tastes and
smells. Neurons in the inner ear are sensitive to vibration, and provide us
with information about sound. And the rods and cones of the retina are
sensitive to light, and allow us to see.
2. Motor neurons are able to stimulate muscle cells throughout the
body, including the muscles of the heart, diaphragm, intestines,
bladder, and glands.
3. Interneurons are the neurons that provide connections between
sensory and motor neurons. The neurons of the central nervous
system, including the brain, are all interneurons.
Interneuron
Nervous system Division
Brain