UNIT I 2.1.

Approximate Estimate

 Purpose: Prepared at an early stage to get

1. Estimating and Costing – a rough idea of the probable cost for
Meaning, Purpose, Administrative administrative approval and budget
Approval & Technical Sanction allocation. It is less accurate and based on
similar past projects.
 Estimating: The process of calculating the  Methods of Approximate Estimate:
probable cost of a construction project o Service Unit Method: Cost is
before it is undertaken. It involves working based on the cost per unit of
out the quantities of various items of work service (e.g., cost per student for a
and multiplying them by the current unit school, cost per bed for a hospital).
rates. o Plinth Area Method: Cost is
 Costing: The process of determining the calculated as (Plinth Area of the
actual cost of the work or for making building × Plinth Area Rate).
financial plans. o Cubical Content Method: Cost is
 Purpose of Estimating: based on the volume of the
o To know the approximate or building (Plinth Area × Height).
detailed cost of the project. o Typical Bay Method: Used for
o To determine the quantities of structures with repetitive units
materials and labor required. (e.g., factories, warehouses). The
o To get Technical Sanction and cost of one typical bay is estimated
Administrative Approval. and then multiplied by the total
o For inviting tenders and preparing number of bays.
bids. o Approximate Quantity Method:
o To determine the time required for The quantities of main items are
completion of the project. estimated to prepare a more
 Administrative Approval (AA): This is realistic approximate cost, but it's
the formal acceptance of a project proposal not as detailed as a full detailed
by a competent authority. It is an estimate.
acceptance of the scheme and a sanction
of funds. It is obtained based on a 2.2. Detailed Estimate
preliminary estimate (like a rough cost
estimate or plinth area estimate) and a  Purpose: Prepared after the approximate
brief report. It authorizes the department to estimate is approved. It is an accurate
incur expenditure on the project. estimate that provides a cost very close to
 Technical Sanction (TS): This is the the actual cost of the project. It is prepared
sanction of the detailed estimate, from detailed drawings and specifications.
drawings, design calculations, quantities,  Process: The estimate is prepared in two
rates, and specifications by a competent stages:
technical authority. Construction work can 1. Measurement Sheet (Details of
commence only after Technical Sanction is Measurements): Calculating the
obtained. The authority ensures the quantities of each item.
estimate is technically feasible, stable, and 2. Abstract Sheet (Abstract of
economical. A revised estimate is required Estimated Cost): Calculating the
if the cost is likely to exceed the cost of each item and arriving at
sanctioned amount by more than 5%. the total cost.

2. Types of Estimates 3. Types and Uses of Detailed Estimates

Estimates are broadly classified into Description and When it is

Type of Estimate
Approximate Estimates and Detailed Estimates. Used
Revised Estimate Prepared when the original
 Description and When it is 8. Other Services: Sanitary and
Type of Estimate
Used electrical works.
sanctioned estimate is likely to
be exceeded by more than 5% 4.2. Framed Structure
or when there is a material In this structure, a skeleton of columns, beams,
deviation from the original and slabs (made of RCC or steel) carries the
plan due to changes in design, entire load. Walls are non-load-bearing partitions.
quantities, or rates.
Prepared when additional  Main Components: Columns, Beams,
works not originally included Slabs, and a reinforced concrete
Supplementary in the sanctioned estimate are foundation.
Estimate required during the progress of  Checklist of Items:
the work. (e.g., adding a new 1. Earthwork: Excavation for
room or a boundary wall). isolated or combined footings.
Prepared for the annual or 2. Foundation: RCC footings for
periodic upkeep of a structure columns.
Repair & 3. Substructure: Pile caps, raft
to keep it in proper working
Maintenance foundation, etc.
condition (e.g., whitewashing,
(R&M) Estimate 4. Superstructure: Columns, Beams,
plaster repairs for buildings;
patchwork for roads). and Slabs (all RCC).
5. Walls: Partition walls (thin
Prepared for major works to
brickwork or block work).
upgrade or modernize an
6. Finishing Works: Plastering,
Renovation existing structure (e.g.,
flooring, painting (similar to load-
Estimate changing flooring, changing
bearing).
the internal layout by
7. Other Services: Sanitary and
adding/removing walls).
electrical works.

4. Checklist of Items in Load Bearing and

Framed Structure 5. Standard Formats
4.1. Load Bearing Structure 5.1. Measurement Sheet
In this structure, the walls themselves bear the
load of the building and transfer it directly to the  Used for calculating the quantities of each
foundation. item of work.
 Columns typically include: Serial
 Main Components: Walls Number, Item Description,
(Brick/Stone/Concrete), Floors and Roofs Location/Reference, No., Length (m),
(Slabs), Lintels, Building Foundation. Breadth (m), Height/Depth (m), and
 Checklist of Items: Quantity. It provides the detailed working
1. Earthwork: Excavation for out.
foundation.
2. Foundation: Brick/Stone/Concrete 5.2. Abstract Sheet
masonry in foundation and plinth.
3. Basement/Substructure: Filling  Used for calculating the cost of the
in plinth. project.
4. Superstructure: Load-bearing  Columns typically include: Serial
walls (9" thick or more). Number, Item Description, Quantity, Unit,
5. Floors & Roofs: RCC slabs or Rate per unit (₹), and Total Amount (₹).
wooden/steel joists.
6. Doors & Windows: Frames and 5.3. Face Sheet
shutters.
7. Finishing Works: Plastering,  The cover page or summary sheet of the
flooring, painting. estimate.
  Contains the total estimated cost and Mode of Desired
details of sub-heads (e.g., Civil Works, Item of Work Measurem Unit Accuracy /
Electrical Works, Sanitary Works, GST, ent Note
Contingencies, Supervision charges). wall edges,
and
corners.
Skirting
6. Modes of Measurement and Desired and dado
Accuracy as per IS:1200 Flooring/Tiling Area m² are
measured
IS:1200 is the standard code for the measurement separately.
of building and civil engineering works in India. Measured
as the
Formwork/
Mode of Desired Area m² contact area
Shuttering
Item of Work Measurem Unit Accuracy / with
ent Note concrete.
Measured No
in cubic deduction
meters Painting Area m² for
(e.g., to the openings <
nearest 0.5 m².
Earthwork Volume m³ 0.01 m³).
Separate
measureme 7. Rules for Deduction in Different
nts for Category of Work as per IS:1200
different
soil types. Category of Work Deduction Rules
No - No deduction for openings
deduction (like doors, windows) up to
for Masonry 0.1 m².
Concrete reinforcem (Brick/Stone) & - Deduction for openings
Volume m³
(PCC/RCC) ent and for Concrete larger than 0.1 m² is done
openings based on the volume of the
up to 0.1 opening.
m².
- No deduction for openings
Laps, (like doors, windows) up to
kg / hooks, and 0.5 m².
Reinforcement
Weight Tonn chairs are - No deduction for small
(Steel) Plastering &
e included in edges, corners, and ends of
the weight. Painting
walls.
No - Deduction for openings
deduction larger than 0.5 m² is made on
Masonry for the full area of the opening.
Volume m³
(Brick/Stone) openings - Usually measured in square
up to 0.1 Flooring meters; no separate deduction
m². for small segments.
Plastering Area m² Deduction
for
openings >
8. Description/Specification of Items of
0.5 m². No
deduction Building Work as per PWD
for small
openings A PWD specification typically describes the
(<0.5m²), materials, quality, workmanship, and method
of construction for each item.
 Item of Work PWD Specification Example For culverts, the approximate estimate is often
"Earth work in excavation of based on the cost per running meter for a
foundation trenches or drains... standard size (e.g., a 1.5m span box culvert or a
including removing, spreading pipe culvert of a certain diameter). The size of the
Earthwork in or stacking the spoils within a culvert is primarily determined by the hydraulic
Excavation lead of 75 m... trimming the capacity required to pass the design discharge
sides of trenches, levelling, (peak flood flow). Based on the required flow
dressing and ramming the area, a standard culvert size is selected (e.g.,
bottom..." round or pipe-arch), and its cost is estimated based
"Brick work with 1st class on its length and per-meter rate.
Brickwork bricks in cement mortar (1:6) (a)
In foundation and plinth..."
"Ordinary Cement concrete (mix
1:1.5:3) with graded stone chips
RCC Work
(20 mm nominal size) excluding UNIT II
shuttering and reinforcement..."
"Reinforcement for reinforced
concrete work... including 1. Approximate Estimate:
distribution bars, stirrups, Definition and Purpose
binders... cutting to requisite
Reinforcement
length, hooking and bending to  Definition: An approximate estimate, also
correct shape, placing in proper known as a preliminary or rough cost
position and binding with 16 estimate, is a quick calculation of the
gauge black annealed wire..." probable cost of a construction project. It
"Plaster (to wall, floor, ceiling is prepared in the early stages, often before
etc.) with sand and cement detailed drawings and specifications are
mortar including rounding off or finalized. Its primary purpose is to give the
Plastering
chamfering corners... with 1:4 client or approving authority a general idea
cement mortar... 20 mm Thick of the financial commitment required .
Plaster..."  Purpose:
"Artificial stone in floor, dado, 1. Financial Feasibility: To
staircase etc with cement determine if a project is financially
concrete (1:2:4) with stone viable and can be undertaken with
Flooring the available funds .
chips... including smooth
finishing and rounding off 2. Administrative Approval: To
corners..." provide a basis for obtaining the
necessary administrative sanction
from government or other
9. Approximate Estimate for Roads and approving bodies .
3. Budgeting: To allocate a budget
Culverts
for the project and plan finances.
4. Decision Making: For commercial
For roads, the approximate estimate can be based
projects, it helps in studying the
on the cost per kilometer of similar roads
cost-benefit ratio before proceeding
constructed in the area (Service Unit Method).
.
The estimate can also be broken down into sub-
5. Comparison: To compare the cost
heads like:
of different designs, locations, or
construction methods .
1. Earthwork: Cost based on volume of
cutting and filling.
2. Sub-base and Base Course: Cost based
on volume per unit length.
3. Surface Course (Bituminous/Concrete): 2. Methods of Approximate Estimate
Cost based on area (length × width).
The choice of method depends on the type of similar buildings with comparable
project and the data available. The most common specifications and construction in
methods are detailed below. the same locality.
 Example: Prepare an approximate
2.1. Service Unit Method (Unit Rate Method) estimate for a building with a total plinth
area of 80 sq.m using the following data :
 Concept: This method is simple and o Plinth area rate = ₹40,000 per sq.m
effective for projects where the cost is o Water supply = 7.5% of building
directly proportional to a single functional cost
unit of service. The cost per unit is derived o Sanitary and electrical installations
from similar completed projects in the = 7.5% each of building cost (total
locality . 15%)
 Procedure: o Architectural features = 1% of
1. Identify the functional unit (e.g., building cost
per bed in a hospital, per student in o Roads and lawns = 5% of building
a hostel, per kilometer for a road, cost
per classroom in a school). o P.S. & contingencies = 4% of
2. Determine the prevailing cost rate building cost
for that unit from similar projects. o Supervision charges = 8% of total
3. Multiply the number of units by the cost
unit rate to get the total estimated
cost. Item Amount
 Example: Calculate the approximate cost Calculation
Description (₹)
of a hostel building to accommodate 150 Basic Building 80 m² ×
students, if the cost of construction 32,00,000
Cost ₹40,000/m²
including all provisions is ₹15,000 per
Add: Water 7.5% of
student . 2,40,000
Supply 32,00,000
Add: Sanitary 15% of
o Solution: 4,80,000
& Electrical 32,00,000
Total Cost = Number of students ×
Rate per student Add:
1% of
Total Cost = 150 × ₹15,000 = Architectural 32,000
32,00,000
₹22,50,000 Features
Add: Roads & 5% of
1,60,000
2.2. Plinth Area Rate Method (Square Meter Lawns 32,00,000
Method) Add: P.S. & 4% of
1,28,000
Contingencies 32,00,000
 Concept: This is one of the most widely Total Cost
Sum of
used methods for building projects. The (before 42,40,000
above
cost is estimated by multiplying the plinth supervision)
area of the building by the prevailing Add:
8% of
plinth area rate . Supervision 3,39,200
42,40,000
 Key Definitions: Charges
o Plinth Area: The built-up covered Grand Total
area of the building measured at ₹45,79,200
Cost
the floor level. It includes the area
of walls and internal shafts (for 2.3. Cubical Content Method (Cubic Meter
lifts, etc.) but generally excludes Method)
open spaces like courtyards,
unenclosed balconies, lofts, and  Concept: This method provides a more
projecting architectural features . accurate estimate than the Plinth Area
o Plinth Area Rate: The cost of Method, especially for multi-storeyed
construction per square meter of buildings. The cost is calculated based on
plinth area. This rate is not fixed the total cubical content (volume) of the
and is determined from the cost of building multiplied by a cubic rate .
 Key Definitions: 2.4. Approximate Quantity Method
o Cubical Content: The total
volume of the building is  Concept: This method is considered more
calculated by multiplying the plinth reliable and accurate than the previous
area by the height of the building ones as it involves a more detailed
(measured from the bottom of the breakdown of the major items. It is useful
foundation to the top of the roof). when a plan is available but detailed
o Cubic Rate: The cost of working drawings are not yet finalized .
construction per cubic meter of  Procedure:
volume, derived from similar 1. Divide the structure into two main
structures in the area. parts: the foundation (including
 Example: Prepare a rough estimate for a plinth) and the superstructure .
commercial complex with the following 2. Determine the total length of the
data : walls in running meters from the
o Plinth Area per floor = 500 m² plan.
o Height of each storey = 3.5 m 3. For the foundation, calculate the
o Number of storeys = G+2 (Ground approximate quantities of items
plus 2 floors = 3 storeys) like excavation, foundation
o Cubical content rate = ₹1000/m³ concrete, and brickwork up to the
o Water supply & Sanitary = 8% of plinth level per running meter of
structural cost the wall. These quantities are then
o Electrification = 6% multiplied by their respective rates
o Fluctuation of rates = 5% to arrive at a composite rate per
o Contractors profit = 10% running meter for the foundation .
o Petty supervision & contingencies 4. Similarly, for the superstructure,
= 3% calculate a composite rate per
running meter of the wall based
Amount on approximate quantities of
Item brickwork, woodwork, roofing, and
Calculation (₹
Description floor finishing .
Lakhs)
5. Multiply the total running length of
3 storeys × (500
Cubical the wall by the respective
m² × 3.5 m) = -
Content composite rates (foundation and
5250 m³
superstructure) to get the total
5250 m³ × estimated cost.
Structural
₹1000/m³ = 52.50 Important Note: In this method, items
Cost 
₹52,50,000 like earthwork excavation are often
Add: Water measured in running meters (per meter
Supply & 8% of 52.5 4.20 length of the trench) as part of the
Sanitary composite rate, rather than cubic meters .
Add:  Simple Numerical Example: Find the
6% of 52.5 3.15
Electrification approximate estimate of a residential
Add: building using the approximate quantity
Fluctuation of 5% of 52.5 2.625 method, if the total running meter of the
Rates foundation is 80 m and the rate per
Total Cost running meter of construction is ₹30,000 .
52.5 + 4.2 +
(before other 62.475
3.15 + 2.625
charges) o Solution:
Add: P.S. & Total Estimated Cost = Total
3% of 62.475 1.875
Contingencies length of foundation (in m) × Rate
Add: per running meter
Contractor's 10% of 62.475 6.247 Total Estimated Cost = 80 m ×
Profit ₹30,000/m = ₹24,00,000
Grand Total 62.475 + 1.875 ₹70.597
Cost + 6.247 Lakhs
 Definition Typical
Component/
and Percentage/Val
Provision
UNIT III Purpose ue
The direct
cost of all
1. Detailed Estimate: Definition civil
and Purpose engineering
works like
1.1. Definition earthwork,
A detailed estimate is a comprehensive and concrete, Varies per
accurate forecast of the total cost of a project. It is Civil Cost brickwork, project; the base
prepared after a preliminary or approximate steel, amount.
estimate has been accepted (e.g., after finishing,
Administrative Approval). It involves calculating etc. This is
the quantities of each and every item of work the sum of
from fully prepared drawings and specifications, costs from
and then multiplying these quantities by the the Abstract
respective unit rates to arrive at the final cost . It is Sheet .
the most reliable and final estimate before work An amount
begins. set aside to
cover
1.2. Purpose unforeseen 3% to 5% of the
expenses estimated cost
 To obtain Technical Sanction: It serves and minor (e.g., CPWD
as the primary document for securing changes uses 3% to 5%
approval from the competent technical Contingencies during based on project
authority . constructio cost; 5% for
 To invite Tenders: It forms the basis for n that costs up to ₹1
preparing tender documents, including the cannot be Crore, 3% for
Bill of Quantities, enabling contractors to precisely more) .
quote their rates . predicted at
 To Control Expenditure: It provides a the time of
baseline against which the actual cost can estimating .
be monitored and controlled during Provision
construction. for salaries
 To Plan Resources: It helps in of
determining the precise requirements of temporary
materials, labor, and equipment, allowing technical
for efficient planning and procurement. staff (e.g.,
 To Prepare Construction Schedule: It supervisors,
aids in drawing up a realistic construction 1.5% to 2.5%
foremen,
program and timeline . Work-Charged (or up to 1.5% -
watchmen)
Establishment 2%) of the
employed
estimated cost .
specifically
for the
2. Data Required and Provisions in project.
Detailed Estimate Their
services
A detailed estimate is not just the sum of material end with
costs. It includes a number of provisions to cover the project .
all possible expenditures for the satisfactory Supervision Cost for 8% to 15%
completion of the project. Charges overall (varies based on
project agency and
manageme project type).
nt and
 Component/
Definition Typical 3. Procedure for Preparation of Detailed
and Percentage/Val Estimate
Provision
Purpose ue
supervision The preparation of a detailed estimate is a
by a systematic process generally done in two main
contractor stages:
or a project
managemen Step 1: Taking out Quantities (Measurement
t consultant. Sheet)
Charges for
working  Data Required: Detailed working
through a drawings (plans, elevations, sections),
governmen specifications of works, and schedule of
t agency Variable; often rates .
(e.g., PWD) included in the  Process:
Agency Charges that handles overall overhead 1. The entire work is divided into
the project. or supervision various items of work (e.g.,
This is an charges. earthwork, PCC, RCC, brickwork,
overhead plastering, flooring) as per the
for the standard schedule of rates.
agency's 2. The dimensions (length, breadth,
services. height/depth) of each item are
Cost for the meticulously calculated from the
plumbing drawings .
and sanitary 3. The quantities are calculated using
works, standard methods (Long Wall-
Water Supply and A separate head Short Wall or Centre Line method).
including
Sanitary Charges in the estimate . 4. The results are entered into a
the cost of
materials Measurement Sheet, which shows
and the detailed working out of the
fixtures. quantities.
Cost for the
electrical Step 2: Abstracting (Abstract Sheet)
Electrification A separate head
works,
Charges in the estimate .  Process:
wiring, and
fixtures. 1. The quantities obtained from the
Provision Measurement Sheet are
for renting summarized in an Abstract Sheet .
or 2. Each item's quantity is multiplied
operating by its unit rate (derived from the
constructio 0.5% to 1.5% of schedule of rates or market rate
Tools & Plants analysis) to get the cost of that
n the estimated
(T&P) item.
machinery cost .
(e.g., 3. All item costs are added to get the
concrete Direct Cost (Civil Cost) .
mixers, 4. The various provisions like
vibrators). Contingencies, Work-Charged
The profit Establishment, Supervision
margin for Charges, etc., are added as
the percentages of the direct cost or
10% to 15% of other stipulated basis.
Contractor's Profit contractor
the net cost . 5. The final total is the Grand Total
for
executing Estimated Cost.
the work.
4. Methods of Estimation for Buildings deduct half the wall thickness once;
for a cross-junction, you deduct
For buildings, two primary methods are used to half the thickness twice (equal to
take out quantities for the Measurement Sheet: the full thickness). This correction
is essential to avoid double-
4.1. Long Wall and Short Wall Method counting the quantities at
intersections .
 Concept: This method is generally used in
PWD for building estimates . It is simple
and accurate with little chance of error .
 Procedure: 5. Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) for RCC
1. Identify the Long Walls (walls Elements
running in the longitudinal
direction) and Short Walls (walls A Bar Bending Schedule is a detailed list of all
running in the transverse reinforcement bars required for the project,
direction) . providing essential data for ordering, cutting,
2. Find the center-to-center length bending, and placing steel . It is a core part of
of each wall from the plan. preparing the detailed estimate for RCC works.
3. For Long Walls: The length "out-
to-out" (external length) is 5.1. Key Components of a BBS:
calculated by adding one breadth
(thickness) of the wall to the  Bar Mark / Location
centerline length .  Type of Bar (Main, Distribution, Stirrups)
4. For Short Walls: The length "in-  Size / Diameter of Bar
to-in" (internal length) is calculated  Shape / Bending Details
by subtracting one breadth  Number of Bars
(thickness) of the wall from the  Cutting Length of Bar
centerline length .  Total Quantity (Weight in kg or tonnes)
5. These lengths are then multiplied
by the breadth and height/depth of 5.2. BBS for Various Structural Elements:
the respective item (e.g.,
foundation, superstructure) to get Common
the total quantity . Key Considerations
Element Specifications
for BBS
(for reference)
4.2. Centre Line Method Cutting length for
footing reinforcement,
 Concept: This is considered the quickest including the "L" bend
method for estimating building work, Footing Cover: 50 mm .
at the end and the
especially for walls of similar cross- cover (typically
sections . 50mm) .
 Procedure: Lap length for vertical
1. Calculate the total centerline Cover: 40
bars at each floor,
length of all walls (long and short) mm .Min. Steel:
Column stirrups spacing, and
in the plan . 0.8% of cross-
tie bars at laps and
2. For items with the same cross- section .
junctions .
section (e.g., foundation, plinth),
Main bars on tension
multiply this total centerline length
and compression
by the breadth and depth/height of
Beam faces, shear stirrups, Cover: 25 mm .
that item to get the total quantity
extra bars at supports,
directly .
and crank bars .
3. Crucial Step: At junctions (where
walls meet), the centerline length Slab Main and distribution Cover: 20 mm .
gets reduced by half the breadth of bars in two directions,
the wall for each junction. For cranked bars at
example, for a T-junction, you supports, and edge
 Common Term Definition
Key Considerations
Element Specifications common basis by filling in their
for BBS
(for reference) rates for each item. It is a
reinforcement . fundamental document for tendering
Bars at the top and .
bottom, with a clear Items of work that are not covered
Cover: Similar to
Lintel cover and in the regular schedule of rates but
beam (~25 mm). Spot Items
development length at are required at the site. They are
or Site
the ends . valued based on the actual cost of
Items
Top and bottom labor and materials at the site at the
reinforcement as per time of execution .
the projection; often
Cover: 15 mm to
Chajja includes
20 mm .
reinforcement
projecting from the
lintel .
UNIT IV
6. Special Terms in Estimating 1. Earthwork - Quantities for
Term Definition Roads, Embankments, and Canals
An allowance for an item (like a
specialized fixture or equipment) For linear projects like roads and canals,
whose final cost is unknown at the earthwork volume is calculated between two
time of tendering. The contractor is consecutive cross-sections. The key methods are
allowed a PC sum for the item and based on how the cross-sectional area is
Prime Cost will be reimbursed the actual cost determined and the formula used for volume
(PC) Sum plus a handling charge. It's a calculation.
"supply only" or "supply and fix"
item by a nominated subcontractor. 1.1. Mid-Sectional Area Method (or Average
The allowance is the amount the Depth Method)
contractor is permitted to spend, not
the final price.  Concept: This is the simplest method. It
assumes that the depth (or height) of the
An amount provided for unforeseen
cutting or embankment varies uniformly
work that cannot be detailed in the
between two consecutive sections . The
contract but is expected to occur. It
average depth of the two ends is
is included in the Bill of Quantities
Provisional calculated, and a single "mid-section" area
(BOQ). The contractor is paid for
Sum is computed using this average depth.
the actual work done on a day-work
 Procedure:
basis or by a variation order, using
1. For a road/embankment with
the provisional sum as a budgetary
formation width B and side slope
limit .
S:1 (horizontal:vertical), the cross-
An estimated quantity for an item of sectional area at a depth d is: A =
work included in the BOQ where
B*d + S*d² .
the exact quantity cannot be
Provisional 2. Calculate the average depth
determined at the tendering stage.
Quantity between two consecutive stations:
The contractor's rate is used to re-
d_m = (d_1 + d_2) / 2.
measure and pay for the actual work
3. Compute the area of the mid-
done later .
section: A_m = B*d_m + S*d_m².
Bill of A document prepared by the
4. Volume V = A_m * L, where L is
Quantities quantity surveyor that lists all the
the distance between the two
(BOQ) items of work with their quantities
stations .
and descriptions. It allows
 Example : Calculate earthwork for an
contractors to price the work on a
embankment 120 m long, 8 m wide at the
 crest, with side slopes 2:1, and central 2. Detailed Estimate for a Septic Tank
heights at 30 m intervals of 0.6, 1.2, 1.6,
2.0, and 1.3 m. A septic tank is an underground, watertight
settling tank where sewage is held for a period to
o Solution: Total Volume = 1904.1 allow solids to settle and partially decompose.
cu m (as calculated in the detailed Here is the typical procedure for its estimation.
table in the source).
1. Data Required:
1.2. Mean Sectional Area Method (or Average
End Area Method / Trapezoidal Formula)  Population Served (P): Number of users.
 Sewage Flow: Typically 100 to 150 liters
 Concept: This is the most commonly used per person per day.
method in practice due to its simplicity. It  Detention Period: Usually 24 hours for
calculates the area at the two end sections sludge digestion.
independently and takes their average to  Sludge Storage Capacity: Provided for
find the mean area for the volume about 2-3 years of accumulation.
calculation .  Drawing: Plan and section showing
 Procedure: dimensions, inlet/outlet pipes, baffle walls,
1. Calculate the end areas: A₁ = B*d₁ and cover slab.
+ S*d₁² and A₂ = B*d₂ + S*d₂² .
2. Calculate the mean area: A_m = 2. Sizing (Example Calculation):
(A₁ + A₂) / 2 . Let's estimate for a community of 70 households .
3. Volume: V = A_m * L.
 For Multiple Sections: If there are  Assume 5 persons per household:
sections with areas A₁, A₂, A₃, ..., Aₙ Population P = 70 * 5 = 350 persons.
at equal spacing L, the total volume is :  Average sewage flow: 120
V = L/2 * [A₁ + Aₙ + 2*(A₂ + A₃ liters/capita/day.
+ ... + Aₙ₋₁)]  Total sewage per day: 350 * 120 =
42,000 liters = 42 m³.
1.3. Prismoidal Formula Method  Detention period: 1 day. Tank volume
required for sewage: 42 m³ (minimum).
 Concept: This is a more accurate method  Providing a tank of length 6m, width 3m,
as it accounts for the warped surfaces that and liquid depth 2.5m:
form between the two end sections. It is o Volume = 6 * 3 * 2.5 = 45 m³
based on the prismoidal formula . (Adequate).
 Formula: V = L/6 * (A₁ + 4*A_m + o Add 0.3 m for freeboard. Total
A₂), where A_m is the area of the middle depth = 2.8m.
section (not the average of A₁ and A₂) .  The design from a source for a smaller
 Computing A_m: The dimensions (depth setup gives: Volume 26.5 m³ with
and width) for the middle section are taken dimensions L=2.75 m, W=5.5 m, H=1.5
as the averages of the corresponding m plus 0.3m freeboard .
dimensions of the two end sections .
 For Multiple Sections : 3. Items of Work (for Detailed Estimate):
o V = D/3 * [A_first + A_last
+ 4*(Sum of even areas) +
2*(Sum of odd areas)] 1. Earthwork: Excavation for the tank pit.
o Note: This formula requires an odd 2. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC): A 1:4:8
number of sections. If there's an or 1:3:6 mix for the base.
even number, the volume of the 3. Brick/Stone Masonry: Walls of the tank
last segment must be calculated in 1:6 cement mortar.
separately using the Trapezoidal 4. RCC Work: For the cover slab (with a
formula and then added . manhole), and top slab. Also, for the baffle
walls.
5. Plastering: Inside plaster with cement
mortar 1:3 (12-20mm thick) with a
waterproofing admixture.
 6. Reinforcement: Steel for the RCC o Fabrication and Erection Costs:
members. These are significant parts of the
7. Piping: Inlet (T-junction) and outlet pipes, total cost.
usually 100mm diameter.
8. Soak Pit/Infiltration Well: An adjacent 3.2. Chimney (Steel)
well for the disposal of treated effluent .
 Structural Concept: A tall, slender
structure subjected to high wind loads and
temperature stresses. In an RCC chimney,
3. Case Study: Steel Structures the steel is reinforcement. In a steel
(Industrial Shed, Chimney, Transmission chimney, the shell itself is the structure.
Tower)  Key Design and Estimation Points :
o Lining: A refractory brick lining is
This section covers the key estimation and design provided to insulate the steel shell
considerations for typical steel structures as seen from high flue gas temperatures.
in case studies and exam papers . When checking stresses in the steel
plate, the weight of the lining may
3.1. Industrial Shed be neglected if it is supported on
the brickwork and not on the
 Primary Components: Columns, roof shell, but it must be considered for
trusses (e.g., Fink truss), purlins, roof the total load on the foundation .
sheeting, crane girders (if any), and o Wind Load: The structural design
bracing . is governed by along-wind and
 Loads to be Considered for Estimation: across-wind loads. Across-wind
o Dead Load: Self-weight of the loads (vortex shedding) become
steel structure, sheeting, and other critical for tall chimneys .
permanent fixtures. o Temperature Stresses: The
o Live Load: Loads from workers, temperature difference between the
maintenance, etc. For an industrial inside and outside creates thermal
structure, this is often taken as stresses in the steel shell .
about 5 kN/m² . o Estimation: The estimate involves
o Wind Load: The most critical load calculating the weight of the steel
for such structures. It is calculated plates (based on the shell thickness
as per IS 875 (Part 3), considering and diameter varying with height),
the basic wind speed, terrain, and the weight of the lining, and the
height of the structure. For an cost of platforms and ladders.
industrial shed in Delhi (Basic
Wind Speed 44 m/s), wind 3.3. Transmission Tower
pressure coefficients on the roof
can be as high as -1.3 (suction) on  Structural Concept: A lattice steel
the windward side . structure designed to support overhead
 Key Areas in a Detailed Estimate: power lines (conductors).
o Quantity of Steel: We need to
 Key Components and Loads :
o Components: It consists of a base,
calculate the total weight of all
steel members (columns, rafters, main legs, cross-arms, and bracing
purlins, bracings, base plates, etc.). members.
o Loads: The primary design loads
This is done by estimating the total
length of each section (e.g., ISMB, are the weight of the conductors
ISMC, ISA) and multiplying by its and the wind load acting on the
unit weight (kg/m). conductors and the tower itself.
o Design Parameters: A 400 KV
o Roofing: Estimate the area of
roofing sheets and their fixing transmission line uses a conductor
accessories. like "Moose" (weight 1998 kg/km,
o Bolts and Welds: Include
diameter 31.77 mm) . The sag in
quantities for connections. the conductor (which determines
 the minimum height of the tower) the cost of a specific item of work. It involves
depends on the span length, determining the unit rate by breaking down the
conductor weight, and tension . total cost into its basic components: the quantities
o Estimation: The total weight of and rates of materials, labor, and machinery, plus
steel is the most critical part of the a provision for overheads and profit . It is the
estimate. This is obtained by process of "building up" a rate for a work item not
determining the total length of each readily available in a standard schedule of rates.
type of angle section used in the
tower. For example, a "Transfer 1.2. Purpose
Tower" is a type of heavy-duty
transmission structure .  To determine the rate for a new or specific
item of work based on current market
3.4. Frame and Shutter of Doors and Windows conditions.
(Wooden/Steel)  To verify the correctness of rates in a
standard schedule or to update them.
 Wooden Doors/Windows:  To facilitate the preparation of detailed
o Frame: Estimated by its volume estimates and bills of quantities.
(cubic meters). The length of all  To help in cost control and for preparing
members (vertical styles, bids/tenders .
horizontal heads, and sills) is
calculated, and their cross-sectional 1.3. Importance
area is used to find the volume.
Rates are based on the type of  It ensures the estimated cost is realistic and
timber. based on current market prices.
o Shutter: Estimated by its area  It allows for flexibility in estimating when
(square meters) for a given standard rates are outdated or unavailable.
thickness. Rates depend on the type  It is crucial for justifying costs to clients or
of timber and design (paneled or for auditing purposes.
flush).  It provides a deeper understanding of cost
 Steel Doors/Windows: drivers, aiding in value engineering and
o Frame/Shutter: Estimated by the cost optimization.
weight of steel used. The detailed
estimate is prepared by calculating
the total weight of all sections (e.g.,
pressed steel sections) used in the 2. Key Components in Rate Analysis
frame and shutter.
o Accessories like hinges, locks, and A thorough rate analysis considers the following
handles are often estimated as a components:
percentage of the steel cost or
listed separately as "prime cost" Definition and Key
Component
items. Points
The cost of raw
materials (cement, sand,
aggregate, steel, bricks,
etc.). Includes: Purchase
Materials price, transportation
UNIT V (lead charges),
loading/unloading,
storage, and wastage
Part A: Rate Analysis (typically 2-5%) .
Labour Cost of workers required
1. Definition, Purpose, and Importance
to execute the item.
Based on categories
1.1. Definition
(unskilled, semi-skilled,
Rate analysis is the systematic analytical study of
skilled, highly skilled),
 Definition and Key  Definition: Task work is a productivity-
Component
Points based payment system where a worker is
their daily wages, and assigned a fixed amount of work (a "task")
the number of workers to complete in a day. Upon completion,
required per unit of work they are paid the daily wage rate and are
(task work/out-turn) . free to leave .
Cost for using equipment  Types: It can be an individual task (for
(e.g., concrete mixers, one person) or a group/gang task (for a
vibrators, cranes). This team) . The task is set fairly, considering
may be inclusive of local conditions and allowing a typical
Machinery/Equipment operator charges, fuel, worker to finish within the normal
and maintenance working hours. It incentivizes higher
(operated equipment) or output and efficiency .
exclusive (equipment  Task Work for Skilled Labour: Task
without operator) . work rates are established for different
Indirect costs not skilled labours based on their expected
directly attributable to a "out-turn" (quantity of work produced per
specific item but day). For example, the out-turn for a
necessary for the project. mason may be 1-1.25 m³ per day for
Includes administrative brickwork in foundation. This is used to
Overhead Charges expenses, site office calculate the number of workers needed
costs, temporary for a unit quantity of an item .
services, and
supervision. Typically a
percentage (e.g., 13-
17%) of the total cost . 3. Procedure for Rate Analysis
The margin the
To perform rate analysis for a specific item of
contractor expects for
work :
Contractor's Profit] executing the work.
Standard practice is 10-
1. Gather Data: Collect current market rates
15% of the total cost .
for all materials, wage rates for different
categories of labor, and hire charges for
2.1. Lead and Lift
equipment.
2. Determine Quantities: For one unit of the
 Lead: The horizontal distance materials
item, calculate the quantity of each
are transported from the source to the
material required (including wastage) and
construction site. Charges for
the number of labor-days and machine-
transportation are based on lead distance.
hours needed (using task work/out-turn
A "standard lead" (often 50m to 1 km) is
rates).
included in the material rate; "extra lead"
3. Calculate Direct Costs:
is charged separately as per schedule
o Material Cost: Sum of (Quantity
rates .
of each material × Market Rate).
 Lift: The vertical distance materials are
o Labour Cost: Sum of (Number of
raised. Lift charges apply when materials
each type of labor × Daily Wage
need to be lifted to height (e.g., for multi-
Rate).
storey buildings) beyond a standard lift
o Equipment Cost: Sum of
(usually 1.5m to 3m) .
(Equipment hours × Hire Charges).
4. Add Overheads and Profit: Add a
2.2. Water Charges
percentage for overhead charges and a
A small percentage (typically 1-1.5%) of the cost
percentage for contractor's profit to the
of materials and labor is added to cover the cost of
direct cost.
water required for construction and curing .
5. Final Rate: The sum of all these costs
gives the final unit rate for the work item.
2.3. Task Work
Example of Rate Analysis for Concrete (1:2:4) on a detailed analysis of its physical, economic,
The table below demonstrates how the rate and legal characteristics.
analysis for 10 m³ of concrete might be built up .
1.2. Purpose
Componen Descripti Quantit Rate Total Valuation is required for various reasons :
t on y (₹) (₹)
Materials  Sale or Purchase: To arrive at a fair price.
₹350/  Mortgage / Loan: To determine the
Cement 64 bags ₹22,400 security for loans.
bag
₹1,200/  Insurance: To fix the premium and
Sand 4.4 m³ ₹5,280 compensation in case of loss.
m³
 Taxation: For property tax and capital
₹1,000/
Aggregate 8.8 m³ ₹8,800 gains tax assessment.
m³
 Compulsory Acquisition: By the
Steel (if government for public projects.
785 kg ₹60/kg ₹47,100
RCC)  Partnerships / Disputes: For property
Binding settlement, dissolution of a firm, or legal
1.5 kg ₹65/kg ₹98
Wire disputes.
Labour
1st Class ₹700/ 1.3. Importance
4 ₹2,800
Mason day
2nd Class ₹500/  It provides a reliable financial basis for
3 ₹1,500
Mason day transactions and decision-making.
Casual / ₹400/  It helps in protecting the interests of both
12 ₹4,800 buyers and sellers.
Unskilled day
₹600/  It is essential for the economic viability of
Blacksmith 8 ₹4,800 construction projects.
day
Subtotal  It provides a benchmark for property-
₹97,578 related financial decisions.
(Direct)
6% of
Add:
Materia ~₹3,000
Wastage
ls
2. Factors Affecting Property Value
Add:
1% ~₹1000
Transport
The value of a property is influenced by numerous
15% of factors:
Add: ~₹15,00
Direct
Overheads 0
Cost  Location: Proximity to amenities,
Add: 15% of transportation, schools, markets, and
~₹15,00
Contractor Direct overall neighborhood.
0
's Profit Cost  Physical Factors: Size, shape, frontage,
₹1,31,5 topography, and soil condition of the land;
Total
78 age, design, area, and condition of the
Rate per building.
₹13,158
m³  Legal Factors: Clear title, zoning
regulations, and building bye-laws.
 Economic Factors: Market demand,
Part B: Valuation prevailing interest rates, and economic
growth.
1. Definition, Purpose, and Importance  Social Factors: Neighbourhood status,
community characteristics, and security.
1.1. Definition  Environmental Factors: Scenic views,
Valuation is the art and science of estimating the pollution levels, and climate.
fair price or worth of a property (land, building, or
any asset) at a specific point in time . It is based
3. Key Concepts in Valuation Method Description Suitability
and
Term Definition same locality. The
commercial
sale prices are
The estimated amount for which a properties
adjusted for
property should exchange on the where
differences (e.g.,
Market date of valuation between a willing comparable
size, condition,
Value buyer and a willing seller in an sales data is
location).
arm's-length transaction after available .
proper marketing . Value is the cost of
The value of a property as shown constructing a
in the account books of an similar property Suitable for
organization. It is the original cost today, minus special-
Book Value Cost Method depreciation, plus purpose
minus accumulated depreciation,
and may differ significantly from (Depreciated the land value. buildings
its market value. Replacement Formula: Value = (e.g., schools,
Cost) Land Value + hospitals)
The value of the demolished
(Replacement where market
materials of a building at the end
Scrap Value Cost of data is scarce.
of its useful life, after the cost of Building -
demolition has been deducted. Depreciation).
The estimated value of a building Value is based on
Salvage at the end of its useful life if it the net income the
Value were sold in its existing condition property generates.
(not demolished). A "capitalization Ideal for
The value of a property assigned rate" (or Years' income-
Rental
by a public tax assessor for the Purchase) is used generating
Assessed Method
purpose of levying property taxes. to convert annual properties
Value (Income
It is often lower than the market like rental
Capitalization income into a
value. capital sum. buildings,
Approach)
A fund created by setting aside Formula: Value = shops, and
money periodically to accumulate Net Annual offices .
Sinking Fund a specific amount for a future Income /
Capitalization
purpose, such as replacing an asset
Rate.
at the end of its life .
Used for
The decrease in the value of a
estimating the
Depreciation property due to wear and tear,
value of land that
decay, or obsolescence .
is yet to be
The loss in value due to the developed. It
property becoming old-fashioned works backwards: Used for
Obsolescence or less useful compared to newer Development
calculate the total vacant land or
alternatives, independent of Method (Land
value of the properties
physical deterioration . and Building
developed being
Method)
property, subtract redeveloped.
all development
4. Methods of Valuation costs, and the
remainder is the
Several methods are used to determine the value value of the
of a property : undeveloped land .
Method Description Suitability
Estimates value Most
Comparative
based on the recent common and
Method
sale prices of reliable
(Market
comparable method for
Approach)
properties in the residential