CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Attention
• Attention is the state in which cognitive resources are focused on certain aspects of
the environment rather than on others, while the central nervous system is in a state of
readiness to respond to stimuli.
• Although attention is often a short-lived cognitive state.
• it is a necessary step to subsequent and more detailed and complex analysis of
incoming information.
Different levels of attention.
1. Sustained attention. This refers to the ability to concentrate on a task without being
distracted. The ability to sustain attention seems to be quite well preserved in later
life. Although there is some decline with age, it is difficult to determine the exact
nature and extent of the decline, as different measures of sustained attention yield
different patterns of change.
2. Selective attention. This is the ability to concentrate on a task while there are other
distracting stimuli present. Older adults exhibit a decline in selective attention.
3. Switching attention. This refers to alternating attention between two or more tasks.
More specifically, individuals must carry out two different tasks, shifting between
them according to some rule. This switching or shifting of attention reflects the
demands of holding two sets of task rules in working memory.
4. Divided attention is required when the individual must attend to and process more
than one source of information at the same time. However, the more difficult the
competing tasks are, the less effectively older adults divide attention than younger
adults do.
5. Executive attention involves aspects of thinking that include the planning of actions,
allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring
progress on tasks, and dealing with new or difficult circumstance.
Theories to the explain the possible decline or change in attention.
1. The attentional resources theory. Attentional resources refer to the amount of
attention available to perform cognitive tasks that require effort and where the ability
to distribute attention is under the control of the individual. This theory proposes that
the availability of attentional capacity and efficient distribution of attentional
resources decline with age. This is especially true for some complex cognitive tasks as
well as everyday multitasking situations that require attention to be divided between
two or more sources.
2. The inhibitory deficit theory. This theory focuses on the ability to ignore or suppress
irrelevant/interrupting information or stimuli (distracters) and to focus on relevant
stimuli or goals (target). As tasks become more complex, the sources of distraction
are likely to be more extensive, thus affecting the performance of older adults, often
slowing responses and increasing errors in a wide range of tasks. However, older
adults also tend to encode the distractive information more than younger adults do.
Additionally, it seems that inhibitory efficiency changes throughout the course of the
day. At times of peak circadian arousal (wakefulness), people generally function at
their highest level of efficiency with optimal control over distracting thoughts or
stimuli. This suggests that both older and younger adults’ inhibitory functioning may
be influenced by their alertness.
3. The neurological approach. According to the neurological approach, a decline in
frontal lobe functioning, which is associated strongly with executive functioning such
as planning and the selection of important stimuli from distracting stimuli, may also
play a role in attentional processes. More generally, there seems to be a failure in the
brain to screen neural signals effectively from one another.
Intelligence
Robert Sternberg defines intelligence as the skills and knowledge needed for success in life,
according to one’s own definition of success and within one’s own sociocultural context.
Three types of intelligence by Sternberg
1. Analytical (componential) intelligence refers to how a person processes and
analyses information. It includes abstract thinking and logical reasoning. It involves
mental processes such as abstract planning, strategy selection, focused attention,
information processing and verbal and logical skills.
2. Creative (experiential) intelligence involves a person’s ability to generate new ideas;
in other words, to apply their existing knowledge to new problems. It involves the
capacity to be intellectually flexible and creative.
3. Practical (contextual or tacit) intelligence concerns how a person reacts to the
environment. It involves people’s ability to adapt to or shape their environments to
make it more acceptable.
Howard Gardner broadly views intelligence as the bio-psychological ability to process
information to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture.
1. Linguistic ability: Reading comprehension, writing, understanding spoken word,
vocabulary
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: Abstract thinking, reasoning skills, and solving
mathematical problems
3. Spatial intelligence: Ability to understand relationships between objects, to get from
one place to another, to read a map
4. Musical intelligence: Sensitivity to sound patterns, ability to compose music, to play
a musical instrument, to appreciate musical structure
5. Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: Skills at dancing, athletics, eye-hand coordination,
body control
6. Interpersonal intelligence: Social skills, sensitivity to other people’s behaviour,
motives or emotions
7. Intrapersonal intelligence: Self-understanding, understanding one’s own feelings
and inner life
8. Naturalistic intelligence: Understanding patterns in the natural world of plants and
animals
Fluid and crystallised intelligence – Raymond Cattell
Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to solve new problems, Copyright © 2019. UJ
Press. All rights reserved. use logic in new situations and identify patterns. It refers to the
ability to understand relationships between the components of a problem and to use those
relationships to solve the problem. It is used whenever the solution to a problem cannot be
retrieved from memory and therefore must be figured out on the spot. It is ‘raw’ intelligence,
meaning that it is largely a function of the integrity of the central nervous system and is
relatively independent of social influences and culturally based learning experiences.
Example, acquiring new skills.
Crystallised intelligence (Gc) refers to the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience
that one has learned or acquired previously. It involves the knowledge that a person
accumulates during his or her lifetime. Therefore, it is a function of education, experience,
and exposure to a specific cultural environment. Examples of crystallised intelligence are
speaking one’s native language, knowing processes and rules, and repeating techniques and
strategies that have worked in the past.
Intelligence and aging process
• Classic ageing curve: Intellectual functioning rose to a peak in early adulthood,
followed by an inevitable decline.
• A classic ageing pattern, which referred to certain intellectual abilities, was also
identified: The decline was especially dramatic in the abilities related to fluid
intelligence (the ability to think abstractly, reason, identify patterns, solve problems,
and identify relationships between pieces of information). The decline typically started
in the 20s and steadily declined with increasing age. These abilities are age-sensitive
abilities.
• A decline in the abilities related to especially crystallised intelligence (the sum of a
person’s acquired knowledge) started somewhat later and declined dramatically after
age 65. These abilities are age insensitive.
Why age-related decline to not have greater consequences – Salthouse
1. Performance at maximum level is seldom needed. A possible explanation for the
discrepancy between age-related decline and the general absence of confirming
evidence in everyday functioning is related to a distinction between assessments of
typical and maximal functioning.
2. There is a shift from novel processing to reliance on accumulated knowledge.
According to this perspective, novel problem-solving ability (or fluid intelligence) may
become less important to individuals, as more of their life problems are solved.
3. Cognition may not be the only determinant of success in life. Researchers have
noted a positive correlation between job performance and cognition; however, they
also noted that 75% of the variance remains unexplained. It may be that cognitive
psychometric tests do not measure occupationally relevant aspects of application,
focus, flexibility and effort.
4. Accommodation. Another possible explanation may be that age-related cognitive
declines might have real consequences, but they are not apparent because individuals
accommodate these declines by adapting to a situation.
Problem solving
Age related changes in adults’ decision making and problem solving.
1. Use of strategies. Some laboratory-related research on decision making suggests
that older adults make fewer effective decisions and use less optimal strategies when
deciding what options to select to suit their needs best. It seems that older adults
make decisions more rationally and consistently than do younger adults, who tend to
be affected more by attraction effects; that is, many pieces of information in a
content-rich environment. Older adults tend to use more global heuristics (methods
of finding things out for themselves) and therefore may not be so “attracted” to
discreet new pieces of information as younger adults are.
2. Cognitive abilities. Most researchers agree that adults tend to perform better in
practical (everyday) problems than in abstract one. Everyday problems reflecting both
instrumental and socio-emotional problem solving are related strongly to fluid and
crystallised cognitive abilities.
3. Familiarity, experience and knowledge. In everyday solutions involving practical
decision-making, middle-aged and older adults appear to have an advantage when
confronted with familiar choices. Their greater experience in terms of content and
process allow them to appraise the problem, come up with a strategy, and then
proceed to enact that strategy. Older adults tend to focus on important cues, which
results in efficient decisions. Top-down approach, which means they do not collect
additional information due to the assumption of their own expertise. Bottom-up
approach, (collecting as much data as possible before deciding) they may be better
decision makers than many of their older counterparts.
4. Problem-solving goals. Younger adults tend to focus on competence goals or
autonomy goals (e.g. pursuing a career and living independently). With age, the focus
shifts toward generative goals. Older adults tend to define their own everyday
problems in terms of interpersonal goals (e.g. maintaining important relationships
and regulating negative emotions). Furthermore, problem-solving strategies fit the
problem definitions.
5. Problem-solving context. Adults tend to engage in purposeful planning and action to
overcome the problem. However, the resources a person has available may affect the
way in which the problem is solved. Older adults may have more resources (e.g.
financial, emotional, or experience) than younger adults have, and will therefore be
able to resolve the problem more quickly. Younger adults may be more likely to use
emotion-regulation strategies such as emotional venting or seeking emotional
support, because they do not have the resources, they need to solve the problem.
6. Emotional benefits. Problem situations low in emotional significance refer to
instrumental problems that often occur in daily life (such as taking defective
merchandise back to the store where it was bought), while problem situations high in
emotional significance tend to be more interpersonal (such as conflicts with friends,
family members, or co-workers). The solutions to these situations may be problem-
focused strategies (taking direct action to control or ‘fix’ the problem); cognitive-
analytic strategies (efforts to solve the problem by thinking it through); passive-
dependent strategies (attempts to withdraw from the situation); avoidant strategies
(denial of the problem, often by attempting to reinterpret its meaning); and emotion-
regulating strategies (managing emotions). No significant age differences in problem-
solving styles with problems low in emotional salience were found. However, younger
adults are more likely to use the same strategy across problem-solving contexts,
typically involving self-action.
Expertise
Expertise refers to having special skills, knowledge, or judgement in particular areas.
What causes differences in the way different individuals acquire skills and their level of
expert performance:
1. The classical perspective. Two viewpoints emerged. The innatist view is that experts
are “born”; thus, expertise is an innate characteristic. Although some form of training
is necessary to become an expert, some inborn characteristic influences the rate of
acquiring a particular skill and/or the ultimate level that can be reached. The
environmentalist view is that experts are “made”. This is the view that either talent
does not exist or that it effects are overshadowed by training
2. Cognitive perspective. (1) experts perceive meaningful patterns in their domain; (2) a
set of specific aptitudes or abilities comprise talent in a specific domain.
3. The acquired expertise perspective. From this perspective, scientists began to
consider the possibility that expertise was an automatic consequence of lengthy
experience and considered individuals with over 10 years of full-time engagement in a
domain to be experts.
4. The deliberate practice view. What is the difference between ‘novices’ and experts?
For novices, the goal for accomplishing an activity is to reach as rapidly as possible a
satisfactory performance level that is stable and autonomous. In contrast, experts
build up a wealth of knowledge about alternative ways to solve problems or make
decisions. They tend to do this by means of motivational factors such as deliberate
practice, concentration, focus, and depth of planning.
5. A biological view. Other researchers indicate that although deliberate practise is
important, it explains only a part of the acquisition of expertise. Therefore, people with
higher abilities are more likely to become experts in their fields than those with
average or lower abilities.
Wisdom
• The ability of an individual to make sound decisions, find the correct or at least good
answers to difficult and important life questions, and to give advice about the complex
problems of everyday life and interpersonal relationships (American Psychological
Association, 2015)
• The quality of having experience, insight, knowledge, and good judgement (see Oxford
Dictionaries, 2018).
• Wisdom can be defined as practical decisions that lead to human f flourishing
(Nusbaum, 2014).
• Wisdom is a mental capacity of combining intelligence with moral virtue. Possessing
this integrated quality, an individual would be able to act wisely when faced with
complex situations (Fengyun & Hong, 2012).
(a) Implicit theories of wisdom. The rationale of implicit theories of wisdom (i.e. folk
wisdom) is that individuals know implicitly (inherently) who and what is wise. Theorists in
this domain typically investigate lay people’s (people who are not scientific experts in the
field) beliefs or understanding of what wisdom entails. The cognitive conception group
primarily endorsed cognitive characteristics (knowledge, life experience and cognitive
complexity) and reflective characteristics (self-reflection and acceptance of others’
values) as central to wisdom. The integrative conception group additionally endorsed
affective/ compassionate characteristics, such as benevolence, empathy, love for
humanity and concern for others.
(b) Explicit theories of wisdom. Are viewpoints of expert theorists and researchers rather
than of lay people and are based on the principles of the psychology of human
development.
• Western approach. (a) factual knowledge about human nature and the life course;
(b) procedural knowledge about ways of dealing with life’s problems; (c) life-span
contextualism – an awareness of the many contexts of life; (d) value relativism and
tolerance such as acknowledging individual, social and cultural differences in
values and life priorities; and (e) knowledge about handling uncertainty, including
the limits of one’s own knowledge and the knowledge of the world at large.
• An African approach. The latter is also an aspect of the African worldview as
reflected in the concept of ubuntu, which includes relatedness where foundational
values inform members of society on how to lead a wise life through serving
others, including the environment. It promotes a pervasive spirit of caring and
community, harmony, hospitality, humility, respect and responsiveness among
people. A Kenyan philosopher demarcated African philosophy into four
components. One of the components, called philosophic sagacity, is practised by
indigenous thinkers or sages. Sages are usually opinion leaders who are frequently
consulted by people because they are versed in the wisdom and traditions of their
people and are wise within the conventional and historical confines of their
culture. Philosophic sagacity is individualistic, dialectical, rigorous and
philosophical in the strict sense. Philosophical sage is both a sage and a critical
thinker. The philosophical sage is not only wise, but also capable of being rational
and critical in understanding or solving the inconsistencies of his or her culture
and coping with foreign or modern encroachments on it. Philosophical sages are
considered critical and independent thinkers capable of using their own thoughts
and judgements based on the power of reason and insight rather than on the
authority of the communal consensus.
• A culturally inclusive model. (Three-dimensional model). The cognitive
wisdom dimension entails a desire to know the truth and encompasses a deep
and thorough understanding of life, particularly regarding issues that relate to one’s
own person and one’s relationship with others. It includes knowledge and
acceptance of the positive and negative aspects of human nature, of the inherent
limits of knowledge, and of life’s unpredictability and uncertainty. The reflective
wisdom dimension refers to the ability to perceive phenomena and events from
multiple perspectives. It includes self-awareness, self-insight and self-
examination to overcome subjectivity and projection. The compassionate
wisdom dimension includes a more thorough understanding of life, and the
human condition combined with a reduction in self-centeredness, which tends to
generate sympathetic and compassionate love for others and the motivation to
foster the well-being of others.
Factors that may affect cognitive development
1. Health. An important distinction is between normal ageing and pathological ageing.
There is ample evidence that pathologies (diseases) accelerate the rate of cognitive
decline in later life. The number of different pathologies, including minor diseases, may
affect cognitive performance. In fact, a very rapid cognitive decline in the months before
death is referred to as the terminal drop. Critical loss argument, whereas some
intellectual abilities may decline without predicting anything, changes in specific
indices (signs) are far more likely to indicate that death is imminent.
2. Sociodemographic factors. Indications are that sociodemographic factors such as
prolonged education, higher socio-economic status, lengthy marriage to an intelligent
spouse, exposure to stimulating environments, the complexity of workplace
environment, and the utilisation of cultural and educational resources throughout
adulthood affect the maintenance of cognitive functioning in old age.
3. Personality factors. Characteristics such as a positive self-image, an internal sense of
control, positive feelings of self-efficacy, and effective use of coping strategies may also
combat the decline in cognitive functioning, since people who believe they can perform
effectively usually do perform effectively.
4. Multilingualism. Researchers have discovered that senior citizens who speak more
than one language test for better cognitive functioning.
5. Lifestyle factors. Maintaining an active life, such as being involved in community and
family, and stimulating mental activities also contribute to maintaining cognitive
abilities. A large amount of learning can take place in everyday life without the person
being consciously aware of being stimulated intellectually.
6. Experiences at every stage of life. Multiple factors, such as people’s circumstances,
life experiences, behaviour patterns, socio-economic status, lifestyle, and educational
and recreational activities throughout life may affect their cognitive ability in advanced
age.