GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING: SETTLEMENT

ANALYSIS
Complete Solutions Manual with Step-by-Step Derivations & Illustrations [Total: 40 Marks]

1. Problem Statement
A square footing, 3 m × 3 m, applies a net foundation pressure of 160 kPa to the ground surface. The
underlying soil profile consists of a normally consolidated (NC) clay layer, 3 m thick, whose mid-height is
located 5 m below the base of the footing. The clay has an initial void ratio e₀ = 0.95, compression index
C_c = 0.34, and an initial effective overburden pressure at its mid-height of p₀' = 90 kPa. Immediate
(elastic) settlement calculations may be performed using an elastic modulus E_s = 13,000 kPa, Poisson's
ratio μ_s = 0.5, and an influence factor I_f = 0.95 for the centre of the footing.

★ GIVEN GEOTECHNICAL DATA SUMMARY

• Footing Geometry & Loading: B = 3 m, L = 3 m, Net q = 160 kPa

• Elastic Parameters: E_s = 13,000 kPa, μ_s = 0.5, I_f = 0.95 (centre)
• Clay Layer 1 Parameters: H = 3.0 m, z = 5.0 m (depth to mid-height), e₀ = 0.95, C_c = 0.34, p₀' = 90 kPa
• Consolidation Parameters: C_v = 0.75 m²/year, C_α/C_c ≈ 0.035, Double Drainage (d = H/2 = 1.5 m)
• Clay Layer 2 Parameters (Part g): H₂ = 2.0 m, e₀ = 1.05, C_c = 0.40, p₀' = 130 kPa, Δσ' = 15 kPa
 Figure 1: Geotechnical Soil Profile and 2:1 Stress Spread Geometry

2. Detailed Questions & Solutions

Part (a): Immediate (Elastic) Settlement at Footing Centre

Question: Calculate the immediate settlement at the centre of the footing.

Solution:
Immediate settlement (S_i) under a flexible/semi-flexible foundation is calculated using Elastic Theory:

S_i = [ q · B · (1 - μ_s²) / E_s ] · I_f

Where:
• Net applied pressure, q = 160 kPa
• Footing width, B = 3.0 m
• Poisson's ratio, μ_s = 0.5
• Elastic Modulus, E_s = 13,000 kPa
• Influence Factor at centre, I_f = 0.95
 Calculation Steps:
1. Term (1 - μ_s²) = 1 - (0.5)² = 1 - 0.25 = 0.75
2. S_i = [ 160 × 3.0 × 0.75 / 13,000 ] × 0.95
3. S_i = [ 360 / 13,000 ] × 0.95 = 0.027692 m × 0.95 = 0.026308 m = 26.31 mm

Final Result: S_i = 26.31 mm (or 0.0263 m)

Part (b): Stress Increase Δσ' at Clay Mid-Height (2:1 Method)

Question: Using the 2:1 (vertical:horizontal) approximate method for stress distribution, determine the
increase in effective vertical stress, Δσ', at the mid-height of the clay layer due to the applied footing load.

Solution:
Under the 2:1 load distribution method, the applied footing load Q = q × B × L spreads outward at a slope
of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal (or 0.5 horizontal per unit depth on each side). At a depth z below the base of
the footing, the dimensions of the loaded area increase from (B × L) to (B + z) × (L + z).

Formula: Δσ' = (q · B · L) / [ (B + z) · (L + z) ]

Where:
• B = 3.0 m, L = 3.0 m
• q = 160 kPa → Total applied load Q = 160 × 3 × 3 = 1,440 kN
• Depth to mid-height of clay layer from footing base, z = 5.0 m

Calculation Steps:
1. Expanded area dimensions at z = 5 m: (B + z) = 3 + 5 = 8.0 m
2. Expanded area A_z = 8.0 m × 8.0 m = 64.0 m²
3. Δσ' = 1,440 kN / 64.0 m² = 22.50 kPa

Final Result: Δσ' = 22.50 kPa

Part (c): Ultimate Primary Consolidation Settlement (NC Clay)

Question: Determine the ultimate primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer, assuming it is
normally consolidated as stated.

Solution:
For a Normally Consolidated (NC) clay layer (where initial effective stress p₀' is the maximum past
stress), 1D consolidation settlement is calculated using Terzaghi's formula:

Formula: S_c = [ (C_c · H) / (1 + e₀) ] · log₁₀ [ (p₀' + Δσ') / p₀' ]

 Given Parameters:
• C_c = 0.34, H = 3.0 m, e₀ = 0.95
• p₀' = 90 kPa, Δσ' = 22.5 kPa → p₀' + Δσ' = 112.5 kPa

Calculation Steps:
1. Stress Ratio: (p₀' + Δσ') / p₀' = 112.5 / 90 = 1.25
2. log₁₀(1.25) = 0.09691
3. S_c = [ (0.34 × 3.0) / (1 + 0.95) ] × 0.09691 = [ 1.02 / 1.95 ] × 0.09691
4. S_c = 0.523077 × 0.09691 = 0.05069 m = 50.69 mm

Final Result: S_c = 50.69 mm (or 0.0507 m)

Part (d): Overconsolidated Clay Settlement Analysis

Question: Suppose now that the clay is overconsolidated, with a preconsolidation pressure p_c' = 110 kPa
and a recompression index C_r = 0.06. The initial void ratio, compression index, and stress increase from
part (b) remain unchanged.
i) Demonstrate that the loading path straddles the preconsolidation pressure.
ii) Recalculate the primary consolidation settlement for this overconsolidated case.
iii) Comment on the difference between this result and the settlement obtained in part (c).

Solution:

i) Proof that loading path straddles p_c':

• Initial effective stress: p₀' = 90 kPa
• Preconsolidation stress: p_c' = 110 kPa
• Final effective stress: p_f' = p₀' + Δσ' = 90 + 22.5 = 112.5 kPa
Since p₀' (90 kPa) < p_c' (110 kPa) < p_f' (112.5 kPa), the initial stress is in the overconsolidated range,
but the final stress exceeds the past preconsolidation pressure. Thus, the loading path straddles p_c'
(moves from recompression curve to virgin compression curve).
 Figure 2: Compressibility Response (e - log p') showing Straddling Loading Path

ii) Recalculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement:

Formula for Straddling Case (p₀' < p_c' < p₀' + Δσ'):
S_c = [ (C_r · H) / (1 + e₀) ] · log₁₀(p_c' / p₀') + [ (C_c · H) / (1 + e₀) ] · log₁₀ [ (p₀' + Δσ') / p_c' ]

Calculation Steps:
• Stage 1 (Recompression from 90 to 110 kPa):
S_c1 = [ (0.06 × 3.0) / 1.95 ] × log₁₀(110 / 90) = 0.092308 × log₁₀(1.2222) = 0.092308 × 0.08715
= 0.008044 m (8.04 mm)

• Stage 2 (Virgin Compression from 110 to 112.5 kPa):

S_c2 = [ (0.34 × 3.0) / 1.95 ] × log₁₀(112.5 / 110) = 0.523077 × log₁₀(1.02273) = 0.523077 ×
0.009761 = 0.005106 m (5.11 mm)

• Total Settlement S_c(OC):

S_c(OC) = S_c1 + S_c2 = 8.044 mm + 5.106 mm = 13.15 mm

Final Result: S_c(OC) = 13.15 mm (or 0.01315 m)

iii) Comment on Difference:

The settlement in the overconsolidated state (13.15 mm) is significantly smaller—approximately 74%
lower—than the normally consolidated settlement (50.69 mm). This occurs because the majority of the
stress increase (from 90 kPa to 110 kPa, representing 20 kPa of the total 22.5 kPa increment) takes place
along the recompression curve governed by C_r (0.06), which is much stiffer (smaller compressibility)
than the virgin compression index C_c (0.34). Only the final 2.5 kPa increment operates along the steeper
virgin compression curve.

Part (e): Time Rate of Consolidation & Transient Settlement

Question: Assuming the clay layer is doubly drained, with a coefficient of consolidation C_v = 0.75
m²/year:
i) Determine the time required to reach 50% and 90% average degree of consolidation.
ii) Determine the average degree of consolidation and the corresponding settlement 2 years after loading.
Use the normally-consolidated ultimate settlement from part (c) for your calculations.

Solution:
Drainage Conditions: Double drainage implies maximum drainage pathlength H_dr = H / 2 = 3.0 / 2 = 1.5
m.

i) Time for U = 50% and U = 90%:

• Time Factor formula: T_v = (C_v · t) / (H_dr)² ⇒ t = (T_v · H_dr²) / C_v
• For U = 50% (U = 0.50): T_v = (π/4)·(0.50)² = 0.197
t₅₀ = (0.197 × 1.5²) / 0.75 = (0.197 × 2.25) / 0.75 = 0.591 years (approx. 7.1 months)

• For U = 90% (U = 0.90): T_v = 1.781 - 0.933 · log₁₀(100 - 90) = 1.781 - 0.933(1.0) = 0.848
t₉₀ = (0.848 × 1.5²) / 0.75 = (0.848 × 2.25) / 0.75 = 2.544 years (approx. 2 years 6.5 months)

ii) Consolidation and Settlement at t = 2 years:

• Time Factor at t = 2 years: T_v = (0.75 × 2.0) / (1.5)² = 1.50 / 2.25 = 0.6667
• Since T_v = 0.6667 > 0.2827 (or U > 60%), use high degree equation:
T_v = 1.781 - 0.933 · log₁₀(100 - U%)
0.6667 = 1.781 - 0.933 · log₁₀(100 - U%)
log₁₀(100 - U%) = (1.781 - 0.6667) / 0.933 = 1.1143 / 0.933 = 1.1943
100 - U% = 10^1.1943 = 15.643 ⇒ U = 84.36%

• Consolidation Settlement at t = 2 years:

S_c(t=2) = U × S_c(NC) = 0.8436 × 50.69 mm = 42.76 mm

Final Results:
• t₅₀ = 0.591 years, t₉₀ = 2.544 years
• At t = 2 years: U = 84.36%, S_c(2 yrs) = 42.76 mm

Part (f): Secondary Compression & Total 30-Year Settlement

Question: Given that the ratio C_α / C_c ≈ 0.035 for this clay, and assuming that primary consolidation is
essentially complete after t_p = 4 years:
i) Calculate the secondary compression settlement occurring between 4 and 30 years.
ii) Hence, determine the total settlement (immediate + primary (NC) + secondary) over a design life of
30 years.

Solution:

i) Secondary Compression Settlement (S_s):

• Secondary Compression Index: C_α = 0.035 × C_c = 0.035 × 0.34 = 0.0119
• Void ratio at start of secondary compression, e_p ≈ e₀ = 0.95 (or using updated e_p = 0.95 - 0.0969
= 0.8531; standard practice uses e₀ or e_p):
Using standard engineering equation based on e₀:
S_s = [ (C_α · H) / (1 + e₀) ] · log₁₀(t₂ / t₁)
Where t₁ = t_p = 4 years, t₂ = 30 years
log₁₀(30 / 4) = log₁₀(7.5) = 0.87506
S_s = [ (0.0119 × 3.0) / (1 + 0.95) ] × 0.87506 = [ 0.0357 / 1.95 ] × 0.87506
S_s = 0.018308 × 0.87506 = 0.01602 m = 16.02 mm

ii) Total Settlement Over 30-Year Design Life:

• Immediate settlement, S_i = 26.31 mm
• Ultimate Primary Consolidation (NC), S_c = 50.69 mm
• Secondary Compression (4 to 30 yrs), S_s = 16.02 mm

S_total = S_i + S_c + S_s = 26.31 mm + 50.69 mm + 16.02 mm = 93.02 mm

Final Results:
• S_s (4 to 30 yrs) = 16.02 mm
• S_total (30 yrs) = 93.02 mm (or 0.0930 m)

Part (g): Deeper Clay Layer Settlement & Combined Primary Settlement
Question: A second, deeper normally consolidated clay layer is also present at the site. This layer is 2 m
thick, with initial void ratio e₀ = 1.05, compression index C_c = 0.40, and initial effective overburden
pressure at its mid-height of p₀' = 130 kPa. The stress increase at the mid-height of this layer has been
attenuated to 15 kPa.
i) Calculate the primary consolidation settlement for this second clay layer.
ii) Determine the combined primary consolidation settlement for both clay layers.

Solution:

i) Settlement of Second Clay Layer (S_c2):

• Parameters: H₂ = 2.0 m, e₀₂ = 1.05, C_c₂ = 0.40, p₀₂' = 130 kPa, Δσ₂' = 15 kPa
• Stress ratio: (p₀₂' + Δσ₂') / p₀₂' = (130 + 15) / 130 = 145 / 130 = 1.11538
• log₁₀(1.11538) = 0.047336
 • S_c2 = [ (C_c₂ · H₂) / (1 + e₀₂) ] · log₁₀(145 / 130)
S_c2 = [ (0.40 × 2.0) / (1 + 1.05) ] × 0.047336 = [ 0.80 / 2.05 ] × 0.047336
S_c2 = 0.390244 × 0.047336 = 0.01847 m = 18.47 mm

ii) Combined Primary Consolidation Settlement:

• Layer 1 NC Settlement (S_c1) = 50.69 mm
• Layer 2 NC Settlement (S_c2) = 18.47 mm
S_c(combined) = S_c1 + S_c2 = 50.69 mm + 18.47 mm = 69.16 mm

Final Results:
• S_c2 (Layer 2) = 18.47 mm
• Combined Primary Settlement = 69.16 mm (or 0.0692 m)

3. Consolidated Results Summary Table

Sub-problem Description / Parameter Calculated Value Units / Remarks
Part (a) Immediate (Elastic) Settlement, S_i 26.31 mm (at footing centre)
Part (b) Stress Increase at Mid-Height, Δσ' 22.50 kPa (2:1 distribution)
Part (c) Primary Consolidation Settlement (NC), S_c 50.69 mm (Layer 1)
Part (d-ii) Primary Consolidation Settlement (OC), 13.15 mm (Straddles p_c')
S_c(OC)
Part (e-i) Time for 50% Consolidation, t₅₀ 0.591 years (~7.1 months)
Part (e-i) Time for 90% Consolidation, t₉₀ 2.544 years (~2 yrs 6.5 mos)
Part (e-ii) Degree of Consolidation at t = 2 yrs, U 84.36 %
Part (e-ii) Consolidation Settlement at t = 2 yrs, S_c(2y) 42.76 mm
Part (f-i) Secondary Compression Settlement, S_s 16.02 mm (4 to 30 years)
Part (f-ii) Total 30-Year Settlement (S_i + S_c + S_s) 93.02 mm
Part (g-i) Primary Settlement of Layer 2, S_c2 18.47 mm (NC Layer 2)
Part (g-ii) Combined Primary Settlement (Layer 1 + 2) 69.16 mm