Module 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Lesson 1
Basic Principles in the Study of Soils

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Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: It takes a genius to study the obvious, hence
demystifying the secrets of the Earth’s skin requires
Explain the components of the
unsurmountable efforts and devoted desires to
global ecosystem
understand and explain perplexing contexts that no
Define and describe the one has ever tried. In this, you are one of the few
importance and function of who have the courage to know the tangled web of
soil
truth behind the soil. To begin with your journey,
Differentiate between this lesson is specifically designed to let you explore
pedological and edaphological the dynamic nature of soils and the importance of
approach in studying soil
science
studying soils. It will also lead you to know when
and how the study of soils begin, the networks of
Discuss the history and scientific field of studies it has today, and its role in
classify the division of soil
science
addressing issues of the modern times. Upon
culmination of your voyage in this lesson, you will
Key Concepts reflect the importance of soils to the perpetuation of
life in the planet where we live. Enjoy and do not
a. Components of Global
Ecosystem forget the dirt while you learn.
b. Soil
c. Soil Boundaries
d. Landscape
e. Ecosystem
f. Functions of Soil

Section 1.1
Observe Reflect Soil: A Finite and Essential Natural Resource
Is soil important to us? In this activity, you will observe soil in the natural environment and
watch video to reflect the nature and importance of soil.

Procedure

1. In your locality, observe the status and use of soil.

2. Record your observation.
3. Visit [Link] and search the video of FAO-UNESCO entitled, “Let’s talk about
soil”, and watch it.
4. Upon finishing watching the video and observing soil in your locality, evaluate why soils
is finite and reflect the nature and importance of soils in a brochure formatted output.

Analysis

1. Discuss why soils is a finite and essential natural resource.

2. Explain how soils affects to human being and how does human being affect to soil.
3. Discuss why do we need to study soils.

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 1

Components of Global Ecosystem

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1. Atmosphere: air surrounding the Earth.
2. Biosphere: environment in which living
organisms are found, and with which they
interact
3. Hydrosphere: total body of water that exists on
or close to the surface of the Earth.
4. Lithosphere: upper (oceanic and continental)
layer of the solid Earth
5. Pedosphere: The envelope of the Earth where
soils occur and where soil-forming processes are
active.

Soil Horizon
Imagine the pedosphere to the
Properties of the pedosphere affect the other components peelings of the orange. The orange
peel is the outermost part of the
of the global ecosystem. For example, accelerated orange that is exposed to the
decomposition of organic matter in the pedosphere causes elements.
abnormally high CO2 levels in the atmosphere (note CO2
is a greenhouse gas)

Soil

▪ living, dynamic system which forms at the interface

between the atmosphere and lithosphere in Note: highlighted words are the
response to forces exerted by climate and living five factors of soil formation and
organisms acting on parent material as will be discussed separately.
conditioned by topography/relief over a period of
time

▪ collection of porous natural bodies on the earth's

surface, containing living matter, and supporting or Dirt your Mind!
capable of supporting plants.
 As a rule, particles are considered
▪ An independent 3-dimensional natural body “soil particles” if they pass
through the 2-mm sieve.
occupying the earth’s surface and capable of
 Traditionally, soil scientists focus
supporting plant growth. Its properties are result on the porous material that are
from integrated effects of climate and living within 2 m from the surface
organisms acting upon a parent material as
conditioned by topography and time.

Reminder Soil horizon is used in this module as word denoting important concepts (main idea)
in soil science.

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 2

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Dimensions involved in the study of soils

1. Classic Concept:
 Soil is a 3-dimensional body
o Length
Note: These are space dimensions o Breadth
o Depth

2. Modern Concept:
 Soil is a space-time structure
o Length
Note: Addition of time dimension. o Breadth
o Depth

Soil Boundaries

 Upper Boundary - generally considered as air-

solid surface interface or free water-solid
surface interface.

Dirt your Mind!  Lateral Boundary - deep water or barren areas

of rock, ice, salt, or shifting desert sand dunes
 Lower Limit - difficult to define, but generally
thought of as the common rooting depth
 Sediments at depths (shallow in deserts, deep in humid tropics) of
greater than where the native perennial plant
emergent plants grow is
not considered as soil.

Soil as part of Landscape & Ecosystems

Landscape -Three-dimensional section of the Earth’s

surface with specific pattern of topography, rocks, soil,
water, and flora and fauna

Ecosystem - Is an interacting system of biologic

community and its non-living environment

Study Tips
Review Where in the landscape is there significant growth of biota?

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 3

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Importance of the Soil

Civilization depends on soil and water resources

for food production

 Soil resources were and are an important factor

in shaping history and development. Survival of
humans and animals is dependent on light,
water, air, and soil.
 Cultivation of plants for food allowed humans
to convert from a nomadic hunting and
gathering lifestyle to a more settled existence. “History is largely a record of human
struggle to wrest land from nature,
 Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates because man relies for sustenance on the
River in what is now Iraq shows evidence of products of the soil. So direct is the
very early civilization. Writings dating to 2500 relationship between erosion, the
productivity of the land and the history of
B.C. mention fertility of the land. Fertility was the people that the history of mankind to
due to annual flooding of the land, and a system a degree at least, may be interpreted in
of canals were built for irrigation of crops. terms of the soil and what has happened
to it as a result of human use”.
Hugh H. Bennett circa, 1930’s

Functions of Soil

1. Production Function
• Soil acts primarily as a medium for the growth of natural vegetation.
• Soil assures the supply of food, feeds, energy, and raw materials
2. Ecological Regulator
• Soil resists sudden change in its chemical balance thereby protecting the
multitude of organisms living in it.
• Soils acts as buffer, filter, and transformer of various substances in or that are
added to the soil
3. Habitat and Living space
• Soil is a habitat of a multitude of flora and fauna.
• The largest quantity of organisms on the earth is in the soil.
4. Engineering Function
• Support for building foundations
• Construction materials for roads and dams
5. Cultural Heritage Function
• Conceals and preserves remnants of past civilizations, plants and animal life
which are of great value for understanding history of civilization and history of
the earth

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 4

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Two Concepts of Soils

 Pedology - study of soil as a natural entity -

origin, classification, and description
Why Study Soils?  Edaphology - study of soil from the standpoint
of plant growth
 To understand
how soil chemical
and physical
properties affect A person's concept of soil depends on his/her
various uses of viewpoint and experiences...
soils
 To learn how to 1. Engineer - loose or broken rock material at
conserve and the earth's surface. This material can be used
utilize soils for building purposes.
properly. 2. Geologist - highly weathered rock. Part of the
material that makes up outer mantle of the
 To understand earth.
how soil 3. Horticulturist - material that needs sterilizing
properties can and modification before using for plant growth
be modified to in greenhouses.
improve their 4. Farmer and Agronomist - material at earth's
quality for a surface with biological, chemical, and physical
particular use properties that enable it to support plant
growth.

Reflections Check Explain the components of the global ecosystem and how does it influence with each other.
Give your own definition of soil.
Discuss the importance of the soil and why we need to study.
……………………………………………………………………..…

Soil Science History in a Nutshell

 Starting in the 19th century, Soil Science was already

Soil Horizon
considered as a natural science that deals with a
natural body –the soil.
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Soil science is originally

 Major applications were initially toward addressing a branch of Geology that
developed into an
agricultural concerns and has greatly contributed to independent natural
the increased food production worldwide. science
 Worsening environmental problems and the
increased realization that the soil can treat
contaminants has dramatically changed the focus of
soil science.

Periods in the Development of Soil Science

Ancient Pre-Soil Science Early Soil Science

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 5

 Soil Science History in a Nutshell
Chinese attempted to 4,000 Years Ago
classify the soil

2,000 years Greeks and Romans

ago started simple soil
studies

Theophrastus gave the 371-286 BC

soil the name “edaphos”
and described soil
properties that affect
growth

371-286 BC Cato developed a

classification system of
arable soils and
emphasized the Henri Darcy
suitability of soils for developed the key
farming law in Soil Physics
(Darcy’s Law) that
describes water
1803-1873 flow in soils 1817-1901

J. Von Liebig 1803-1929 Joseph Henry Gilbert

established established first
agricultural chemistry systematic long-term
and formulated the field fertilizer
mineral theory of plant experiment in the
nutrition –The Law of world-famous
Minimum Rothamsted
1794 – 1877 F. A Fallou - in his book
Experimental Station
“Pedology or General
and Special Soil
Science” (1862), he
argued for the
recognition of Soil
Science as an
independent natural
science. Founder of
Soil Science

V.V. Dokuchaev - in his 1846-1903

book “Russian Chernozem”
(1883), he discussed the
factors of soil formation
and he introduced the ABC
horizon nomenclature
system. Father of Modern
Hans Jenny - in 1941 published “Factors Soil Science
of Soil Formation” s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, ...)
1833-1893

1899-1992 E. W. Hilgard - one of the first to apply

soil science to solve problems in
agriculture and is considered the “Father
of American Soil Science”

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 6

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Divisions of Soil Science

Soil Horizon
 Soil genesis
Soil Science has  Soil survey & classification
international  Soil physics
organization entity
 Soil microbiology and biochemistry/ soil
The International Union ecology
of Soil Sciences (IUSS)
 Soil fertility
 The global
scientific  Soil mineralogy and chemistry
organization of soil  Soil and water conservation
scientists and soil
science
practitioners
 A full member of
the International
Council for Sciences
(the governing Reflections Check Share your thoughts on the development
body for the of soil science as a natural science.
sciences composed Explain the relevance of understanding
the history of soil science
…………………

of 25 international
science unions)

Section 1.2 Application

Understand Soil Horizons

Think like a Scientist! Soil Horizon
1. Define pedosphere?
2. Provide a definition of the soil that
includes all the five factors of soil
7. Explain the science behind of the study formation.
soils. 3. Discuss the boundaries of the three-
dimensional body that is considered
8. WRITING in Soil Science the soil?
4. Differentiate the pedological and
edaphological concepts of the study of
Write a Newsletter featuring key
the soil.
issues relevant to modern soil science 5. Share your thoughts on the
as well as the functions of soil in the recognition of Dokuchaev as the
context of sustainable agriculture and Father of Soil Science
development. 6. Discuss the different roles and scope
of the division of soil science.

Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 7

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References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

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Fundamental Concepts and Definition | 8

 Module 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Lesson 2

The Earth

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Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: Soil science deals with the dynamic and complex
topmost layer of the Earth’s crust which is the
• Explain the earth’s product of Earth’s surface processes. Hence, a basic
origin, composition, knowledge of the origin, composition, structure, and
and its major spheres history as well as certain geologic processes is
• Illustrate movements necessary for a better understanding of the origin
of continents and nature of the soil. Geology is the science of the
Earth from which soil science branched out in the
Key Concepts 19th century. Upon conclusion of your travel in this
a. Solar Nebular lesson, you will reflect the importance of
Hypothesis understanding the Earth in contemplating the
b. Atmosphere intertwined web of concepts in the study of soils.
c. Biosphere Enjoy and do not forget to continue cultivating the
d. Lithosphere dirt.
e. Hydrosphere
f. Pedosphere
g. Plate tectonics

Section 1.3
Connection to Earth Everything is Connected to Everything Else

Are we all connected? In this activity, you will observe again soil in the environment and
evaluate the connection that soil has contributed in the continuance of life in this planet.

Procedure

 Let us dig into your basic Earth Science memories.

 Review on the components of the Earth ecosystem.
 List the component’s characteristics.
 Build their connections using an illustrative representation.

Analysis

 Explain the importance of studying Earth in the study of soils.

 Describe how the components of Earth ecosystem interact and affects soils.

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 9

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Origin, Structure and Composition of the Earth

Origin
 The most widely accepted hypothesis about the Soil Horizon
origin of the Earth is the Solar Nebular
Hypothesis (SNH).
 The SNH states that the Earth was formed from The 4.6 billion years age of the
condensing gas and dust about 4.6 billion years earth was determined by
ago. radiometric dating of oldest rocks
 Gravitational forces caused the gas and dust and meteorites that have been
particles to come together with heavier particles found on Earth.
gravitating to the center and lighter ones
collecting outside.
Radiometric dating is used to
 The contraction of the mass-produced heat that determine the age of rocks and
caused melting and gradual formation of the other natural materials by means
Earth’s layers: core, mantle, and crust. of their radioactive contents.

Structure and Composition

 Based on the properties of seismic waves (waves

that travel through the Earth), scientists have
determined that the Earth consists of three
layers:
o crust, the thinnest and rigid outermost
layer; The
o mantle, the middle layer which is largely Earth
plastic; and and its
o core at the center which is liquid on the layers
outside but solid inside.
 The liquid portion of the outer core generates the
earth’s magnetic field. The abrupt boundary
between the crust and the mantle is called Moho
discontinuity.
 There are two types of crust: oceanic crust and
continental crust.
000000
o Oceanic crust is about 6 km thick and
basaltic in composition; while
o Continental crust is typically about 35 km
thick and granitic in composition.
Beneath plateaus and mountains, the
continental crust may be as much as 70
km thick.
………

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 10

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Elemental Composition of the Earth (Davies et al., 1975)

Rank Element Symbol Percent by Weight

1 Iron Fe 34.6
2 Oxygen O 29.5
3 Silicon Si 15.2
4 Magnesium Mg 12.7
5 Nickel Ni 2.4
6 Sulfur S 1.9
7 Calcium Ca 1.1
8 Aluminum Al 1.1
9 Sodium Na 0.57
10 Chromium Cr 0.26

The Earth's Major Spheres

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Composition of the Atmosphere A. Atmosphere

Concentration  Atmosphere is the layer of

Gases Symbol
(%) gases and suspended particles
Oxygen O2 20.9 surrounding the earth from
ground level upwards that
Ozone O3 trace greatly affects the
Nitrogen N2 78.1 environmental conditions on
the Earth’s surface.
Argon Ar 0.90
Methane CH4 trace  It has no definite outer edge
and it gradually becomes
Carbon
CO2 0.03 thinner until it merges into
Dioxide
space.
Water H2O variable
Ammonia NH3 negligible

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 11

B. Hydrosphere

 Hydrosphere includes all water bodies on the

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surface of the Earth: oceans, lakes, rivers, Dirt your mind!
underground water and water as glacier or
snow.
Water surface area
 The hydrosphere is closely linked to the other comprises 70.8% of the
spheres particularly the atmosphere through the Earth's total area which is
hydrologic cycle (or water cycle), the continual largely (97%) ocean.
flow of water from the ocean to the atmosphere
to the land and back to the ocean again.
 Since the quantities of water in each phase of the
cycle are closely linked, any changes in the
amount of rainfall, evapo-transpiration, or
storage of water on the land, affects the entire
hydrologic cycle.
Soil Horizon
 The two types of liquid water in the
hydrosphere, seawater and river or fresh water, The table shows a comparison
greatly vary in composition. Seawater is mainly of the composition of sea
a Na+ and Cl- solution while river water is a water and river water. Much
Ca+2 and HCO3- solution (Murray, 2004). of the elements in the
seawater came from the
weathering of rocks and soil
erosion in terrestrial
ecosystems over millions of
years.
……

Chemical composition of seawater and river water

Seawater Riverwater
Chemical Ions
mmol kg-1
Chloride (Cl-) 546 0.22
Sodium (Na+) 468 0.26
Magnesium (Mg2+) 53.1 0.17
Sulfate (SO4-) 28.2 0.11
Calcium (Ca2+) 10.3 0.38
Potassium (K+) 10.2 0.07
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) 2.39 0.96
Bromide (Br-) 0.84 ---

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 12

 C. Biosphere

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 The biosphere is also called the zone of life since
it is the inhabited part of the Earth.

Soil Horizon  It is a thin envelope extending about 8 to 10 km

above the earth’s surface and a few to several
meters into the pedosphere.
 About 95 percent of the
biosphere is composed of  The myriad organisms living in the biosphere
six elements: C, H, O, N, P (plants, animals, microorganisms, and man) owe

………….………………………………
and S. their existence to the sun’s energy and its
 These are the major interactions with the elements and compounds
constituents of the living of the biosphere.
tissue.
 Their growth and distribution are determined
by water, light, altitude, and soil characteristics.

Effects of living organisms on the earth's atmosphere (Lovelock, 1988)

Composition Earth without life Earth with life

Carbon Dioxide (%) 98 0.03
Nitrogen (%) 1.9 79
Oxygen (%) 0 21
Argon (%) 0.1 1.0
Methane (%) 0 1.7
Surface Temperate (°C) 240-340 13
Pressure (bars) 60 1
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D. Lithosphere

 Lithosphere is the term given for the rigid crust

and the upper portion of the mantle of about
100 km thickness.
………………….………………………………

Dig the Earth!

 The upper crustal portion is of particular
interest since it is the portion that interacts The crust is composed of
directly with the other spheres for the cycling of various kinds of rocks
elements. which are grouped into
three types: igneous,
 These rocks are largely composed of eight
metamorphic, and
elements.
sedimentary.


Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 13

 The 15 most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust (Bland and Rolls,
1998)

Rank Element Symbol Percent by Weight

1 Oxygen O 46.67
2 Silicon Si 27.72
3 Aluminum Al 8.13
4 Iron Fe 5.00
5 Calcium Ca 3.60
6 Sodium Na 2.83
7 Potassium K 2.59
8 Magnesium Mg 2.09
9 Titanium Ti 0.44
10 Hydrogen H 0.14
11 Phosphorus P 0.12
12 Manganese Mn 0.10
13 Fluorine F 0.08
14 Sulfur S 0.05
15 Chlorine Cl 0.05

Soil Horizon
Plate Tectonics
 The theory of plate tectonics explains the mechanism by which the Earth’s
continents and oceans are moving and rearranging themselves.
 Its origin is credited to Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist and
geophysicist, who proposed in his book Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane
(The origin of continents and oceans) of 1915 that continents are drifting.
 He advanced the idea that the present continents originated from a single
supercontinent which he called Pangaea (meaning, all earth).
o The modern version of Wegener’s theory, known as Plate Tectonics.
 Plate Tectonics states that the lithosphere is divided into several rigid plates that
float and drift on the plastic ASTHENOSPHERE.
 The plates vary in thickness from 70 to 80 km under the oceans and 100 to 150 km
under the continents.
 The major plates include the Pacific Plate, American Plate, Eurasian Plate, African
Plate, Australo-Indian Plate and the Antarctic Plate.

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 14

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
Let us Dig Deeper!

 The Pacific Plate is the largest

and one of the most active
plates. It moves in a northwest
direction at a rate of about 70
mm per year colliding with the
Eurasian continent.
 This collision resulted in the
formation of the Philippine
Archipelago, Taiwan and
Japan on the crumpled edge of

….………………….………………………………
the Eurasian continent due to Pacific Ring
volcanism and it explains the of Fire
occurrence of thousands of
volcanoes around the Pacific
Ocean known as the Ring of
Fire.

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E. Pedosphere
……………………………..……….………………….……………

Soil Horizon

 It ranges in thickness from a few

centimeters to about 50 meters
Pedosphere is the thin
depending on the environmental soil cover formed
conditions. from the weathering
of the rocks in the
 It functions as a reactor where
upper portion of the
biological processes interact with
crust.
chemical processes at the interface of
the lithosphere, biosphere, atmosphere,
and hydrosphere

Reflections Check Compare and contrast the different components of Earth ecosystem.
Share your thoughts on the importance of understanding the Earth towards the
study of soils.

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 15

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Section 1.4 Application

Understand Soil Horizons

Think like a Pro!

Soil Horizon
1. Discuss the five
components (earth’s major
5. Explain Why is the study of the earth spheres) of the global
and its origin important in Soil ecosystem.
Science? 2. Explain the Solar Nebular
Hypothesis.
6. WRITING in Soil Science 3. Discuss the Plate Tectonics
theory.
Write a Newsletter featuring the key 4. Explain how life on earth affect
connections between the study of soils the concentration of gases in the
and the study of Earth. You may atmosphere.
showcase the current global issues that
1.
soil science addresses and how the
concept of Earth Science facilitates in
addressing such issues.

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Plummer, C.C., McGeary, D., and D.H. Carlson. 2005. Physical Geology 10th edn. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the American, New York, N.Y. 620 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions | 16

 Module 2 Basic of Soil Genesis

Lesson 1

Soil Formation

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: Soil is formed from disintegration of rocks (parent
materials) with the action of climate and living
Discuss soil formation organisms, as conditioned by topography, over a
Elucidate how climate, period of time. As soil is formed, various processes
living organism, relief occur that develop the layers of the soil. In this
parent materials and time lesson, emphasis will be given on the concepts of soil
affect soil formation
formation, particularly the five factors that governs
Explain the process of the formation of soil and how does these factors
disintegrations of rocks and condition the properties of the soil that will be
minerals into soil particles.
formed. Upon culmination in this lesson, you will
appreciate the effect of these factors and its
Key Concepts
relevance in forming the soil that we use today.
a. Soil Formation Enjoy and do not forget the dirt while you learn.
……………………

b. Soil Development
c. Weathering
d. Soil Profile
e. Soil Horizon

Section 2.1
Connect Interpret Factors of Soil Formation

Apply the concepts. The soil is formed through the

interconnected action of climate, living organisms, parent
material, topography, and time.

Procedure
 Do a research works on the influence of each factor
in the formation of soils.
 Make a summary.
 From your summary, make a diagram showing the
interrelationship of each factor in forming the soil
Analysis
 Discuss in your own context, how does the soil
form?
 Explain why soils are different, like the case of
Excerpt from: [Link]
tropical and temperate areas? Is this related to the content/uploads/2015/09/[Link]
factors of soil formation? If yes, how and if no, why?

Basic of Soil Genesis | 17

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Soil Formation

 formation of the soil with special reference to the

processes or soil forming factors responsible for
the development of the true soil from
unconsolidated parent material

Five factors control the formation of soils (concepts of Soil Horizon

Hans Jenny):
The relationship of each of these
 Parent material (texture, structure, chemical factors to each other is seen in the
composition) following sentence:
 Climate (temperature and precipitation)
"Soil is a product of climate, living
 Topography
organisms, and topography acting
 Biotic (Vegetation and animals) factor or Living
on parent material over a period of
Organisms
time."
 Time
Soil= f (parent material[p],
climate[c], relief/topography[r],
Parent Material
living organisms[l], time[t])
Soil = f (clorpt)
 The parent material determines the mineralogy
and the nutrition status of the soil.
 Example:
o SiO2 (quartz) – does not contribute to the
fertility status of the soil.
o KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2 - (Biotite) –
contributes K, Mg and Fe

General categories of parent materials:

1. Residual/Sedentary
Rocks and minerals that are original to a location
that gave rise to a soil (via physical and chemical
processes)
2. Transported
a. Alluvial – transported by rivers
b. Colluvial – transported by gravitational
action
c. Eolian – wind deposits
d. Lacustrine – lake deposits
e. Marine – sea or ocean bottom deposits

Study Tips
As you read on the factors of soil formation, list the distinguishing features that
significantly affect the formation of the soil.
 Read more on the Nature and Properties of Soil (Brady and Weil, 2017)

Basic of Soil Genesis | 18

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Climate and Living Organisms

 Climate and living organisms are considered the

“ACTIVE FACTORS” of soil formation and
Soil Horizon greatly determine the degree and rate of soil
formation.
Temperature has a direct effect  Most important climatic parameters are:
on the amount of organic matter o Temperature
that is produced. Organic matter Temperature changes can cause enough
production increases as expansion and contraction to crack hard
temperature increases, provided rock.
there is rainfall for good plant o Precipitation:
growth. Rainfall affects weathering and the
amount of organic matter production and
As rainfall increase, the
decomposition.
possibility of erosion losses
increases. When rainfall
increases, organic matter Topography
production increases provided
the temperature is high enough  The topography or relief of the location of the
for good plant growth.
parent material influences the effect of the
“active factors”.
 Soil formation is less extensive in steep slopes
where soil disturbance is extensive (erosion)
and degree downward water flow (through the
soil surface) is low.

Time

 Soil-forming processes take time to show their

effects.
 The weathering of rock generally creates only
0.01–0.1 mm of new soil material per year, the
rate of soil formation depending on the
environmental factors
 Time zero in soil formation is a point in time
when a catastrophic event is completed, and
sufficient new material is exposed at the land
surface

Let us now dig the soil!

Soils have different features because of differences or changes in these five factors.
These different effects show up as different soil horizons and soil profiles.

Basic of Soil Genesis | 19

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………
Soil Genesis

 The study of soil formation

 This means interpreting the origin of soil. Soil Horizon
 It is important to understand the beginning of
anything so that you have a foundation for the
future. A thorough
understanding of soil
formation processes is a
Weathering valuable tool to use in
interpreting soils for
specific uses.
 the totality of chemical, physical, and biological
processes resulting in the degradation of the
parent material and the subsequent formation of
the soil.
 breakdown / disintegration and decomposition
of rocks and minerals

Weathering is important because it:

 Produces unconsolidated material (parent
material) from which soil is formed.
 Provides plant nutrients
 Results in the formation of secondary minerals,
the most important group being the clay
minerals.

Note: Rocks are the starting point for the weathering processes

Basic Processes in Weathering:

1. Mechanical/Physical process
a. temperature (expansion and
contraction, freezing and thawing of
water)
b. wind effects
c. force exerted by plant roots

2. Chemical process
a. hydrolysis
b. hydration
c. acid solution
…………

d. oxidation-reduction
e. dissolution

Basic of Soil Genesis | 20

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………
Mechanical/Physical Process

a. temperature (expansion and contraction,

freezing and thawing of water)
b. wind effects
c. force exerted by plant roots

Chemical Process
Rocks undergoing exfoliation, the effect
a. Hydrolysis of thermal differences.
Excerpt from: [Link]
It is due to the dissociation of H2O into H+ and taMPWMTI4/[Link]
OH- ions which chemically combine with
minerals and bring about changes, such as
exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure
and formation of new compounds.

b. Hydration
Chemical combination of water molecules with a
substance or mineral leading to a change in
structure.

c. Acid Solution
Some substances present in the rocks are
directly soluble in water. The soluble substances
are removed by the continuous action of water
Abrasive effects of winds in weathering
and the rock no longer remains solid and form
physically rocks.
holes, rills or rough surface and ultimately falls Excerpt from:
into pieces or decomposes. The action is [Link]
considerably increased when the water is commons/7/7c/Arbol_de_Piedra.jpg
acidified by the dissolution of organic and
inorganic acids.

d. Oxidation-Reduction
The process of addition and/loss absence of
oxygen to minerals. The absorption is usually
from O2 dissolved in soil water and that present
in atmosphere

e. Dissolution
Dissolution equally means leaching. It the
process by which the rocks are dissolved when
Roots of the trees can cause cracks in
exposed to rainwater.
rocks.
Excerpt from:
…………

[Link]
c728x425/upload/56/b0/3c/shutterstock-
[Link]

Basic of Soil Genesis | 21

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………
Reflections Check Compare and contrast the different factors of soil
formation.
Share your thoughts on the process of weathering and
its importance in the study of soil genesis.

Section 2.2 Application

Think like an Artist! Understand Soil Horizons

Soil Horizon
1. Define soil
5. Explain Why is parent material formation using your own
considered the primary determinant of context.
the soil’s chemical properties?
2. Discuss the five factors of soil
6. Arts in Soil Science formation.
3. Compare and contrast residual
Make a short Scientific Documentary and transported parent
(Short Film) that features the material.
formation of soils in various ecological
systems 4. Differentiate mechanical
weathering to chemical
weathering.

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

…………

Basic of Soil Genesis | 22

 Module 2 Basic of Soil Genesis

Lesson 2

Soil Development

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: Soils are quite variable from one location to another.
They have different physical appearances and
Discuss soil development properties which are a result of chemical and physical
Differentiate soil horizon to processes occurring in the environment. Soil
soil profile. horizons are soil features that are easy to observe. As
Discuss master horizons such, when parent materials are weathered and soils
and other common are formed, the factors of soil formation continuously
diagnostic horizons act on it, developing the properties, innate to every
type of soil. Upon culmination in this lesson, you will
Key Concepts know the difference between soil formation and soil
a. Soil Horizon development. Enjoy and do not forget the dirt while
b. Soil Profile you learn.
c. Master Horizon
……………………

d. Pedon
e. Diagnostic Horizon

Section 2.3
Label Interpret Soil Profile and Soil Horizon

Interpret the figure. You are already aware that soils have
different features because of differences or changes of the
five factors of soil formation. These different effects show up
as different soil horizons and soil profiles.

Procedure
 Do a research works on soil profile and soil horizon.
 Label the picture and discuss based on the result of
your research.

Analysis
 Compare and contrast soil profile and soil horizon.
 Differentiate different master horizons.
 Discuss the importance of soil horizon and soil
profile in the study soils.
A typical soil profile

Basic of Soil Genesis | 23

Soil Development

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
 The changes in the soil profile brought about
by natural processes of leaching,
translocation of colloids, accumulation of
organism matter, and continued rock and
mineral weathering

Soil Horizon
 A layer of soil approximately parallel to the land
surface and differing from adjacent genetically
related layers in physical, chemical, and
biological properties or characteristics such as
color, structure, texture, consistency, kinds and
number of organisms present, degree of acidity
or alkalinity etc.

Soil Profile
 A vertical section of soil through all its
horizons, extending into the parent material.

Characteristics of Different Master Horizon

Master
Characteristics
Horizon
organic material at the surface (top of) soil -- leaves, twigs, branches, dead grass
O etc. These horizons are usually seen in forested soils and wetlands, generally not in
cultivated soils.
horizon where decomposed O.M. accumulates -- usually has a dark color area where
most biological activity occurs most - soil microbes are here, as are earth worms etc. -
A usually at the surface. If the field is plowed this horizon extends to the depth of
cultivation. Therefore, it is called the plow layer. Area of clay and chemical loss. It is
called the zone of eluviation.
horizon of maximum removal or leaching. This is also a zone of eluviation. Maximum
E clay and chemical losses have occurred here. -- generally light colored and sandy
horizon where the material from the A and E horizon will collect. This horizon is
B known as the zone of illuviation. -- clay and chemicals are generally at maximum levels
layer of nearly unaltered mineral material. no biological activity here. neither a zone of
eluviation nor illuviation. No changes have really taken place. Very little if any rooting
C has occurred in this horizon. Generally considered to be the lower limit of the soil. --
This is called the soil's parent material.
R the underlying bedrock, such as limestone, sandstone, or granite.

Basic of Soil Genesis | 24

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………

Schematic representation of soil profile with the master horizon.

There are 4 processes involved in horizon

differentiation:
 Additions to the soil
 Losses from the soil
 Translocations within the soil
 Transformations within the soil

All these processes are going on at the same time in the soil. They are
all working together to help form the different horizons.

Basic of Soil Genesis | 25

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
 Soil profiles do not give any
information on irregularities in
a. Additions horizon thickness.
 water as precipitation,  To take care of these irregularities,
condensation, or runoff soil scientists study a volume of
 O2 and CO2 from the soil known as the soil pedon.
atmosphere
 N, Cl, and S from the  The soil pedon is a three-
atmosphere and precipitation dimensional soil body.
 organic matter from biotic  Pedon is the smallest volume that
activities may represent a soil. It is
 material from sediments generally 1 to 10 meters across
 energy from the sun and hexagonal in shape.

b. Losses  If similar pedons are put together,

 water by evapotranspiration we get a polypedon. The pedons in
 N by denitrification a polypedon have similar features
 C as CO2 from oxidation of O.M. and characteristics.
 soil by erosion  Polypedons are put together into
 energy by radiation groups known as Soil Series.
 water and material in solution
or suspension  There are over 14,000 soil series
throughout the world.
c. Translocations  Each of these series has different
 clay, organic matter, iron chemical and physical properties
oxides, and chemicals by water that affect management.
 nutrients circulated by plants
 soluble salts in water
 soils by animals Diagnostic Horizons:
 Horizons that are indicative of
d. Transformations certain types of soil
 decomposition of organic
development. Horizons having
matter specific soil characteristics that
 reduced particle size by
are indicative of certain classes
weathering of soils
 mineral transformations
(primary to secondary) o Epipedons – diagnostic
 clay and organic matter horizons that occur at the
reactions surface
o Diagnostic subsurface
horizon – diagnostic
horizons below the
surface

Basic of Soil Genesis | 26

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Common Diagnostic Horizons
Diagnostic
Symbol Characteristics
Horizon
Mollic A Thick, dark-colored, good structure
Histic O Very high in organic matter content, wet during some
part of the year
Oa Most highly decomposed – very few fibers are
identifiable
Oe Intermediate degree of decomposition
Oi Least degree of decomposition, with readily identifiable
fibers
Argillic Bt Silicate clay accumulation
Albic E Light colored, clay, Fe and Al oxides most likely removed
Oxic Bo Highly weathered, primary mixture of Fe or Al oxides,
rust-colored
Spodic Bhs Organic matter, Fe and Al oxide accumulation
Calcic Bk Accumulation of CaCO3 or CaMgCO3
Duripan Bqm Hardpan, strongly cemented by silica
Fragipan Bx Brittle pan, usually loamy textured, dense

Reflections Check Compare and contrast soil formation and soil development.
Differentiate soil profile and soil horizon.
Discuss the importance of diagnostic soil horizon in the study of soils.

Section 2.4 Application

Understand Soil Horizons

Think like an Artist!
Soil Horizon
1. Discuss soil
6. Explain the relevance of
development in your own
understanding soil profiles in the
context.
study of soils.
2. Differentiate soil profile
7. Arts in Soil Science from soil horizons.
3. Describe the Master
Make a short Scientific Documentary Horizons.
(Short Film) that features the 4. Discuss what is pedon?
formation and development of soils
in various ecological systems 5. Discuss what is diagnostic
horizons?

Basic of Soil Genesis | 27

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification. John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Basic of Soil Genesis | 28

 Module 3 Soil: A Three Phase System

Lesson 1

Basic Composition of the Soil

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: For many of us, we can readily identify and observe
the soil as solid in nature as we step on it almost
Discuss the components of every day. However, the liquid and air part can also be
the soil
present and has equal importance in terms of its role
Discuss roles of the
different soil components in the support for biological growth within and on the
Differentiate rocks from soil surface. Thus, soil is referred to as three-phase
minerals system because it consists of solid particles, liquid,
and air. Upon culmination in this lesson, you will
Key Concepts
know the different roles of each soil components and
a. Soil Air
its interactions among its components. So, enjoy and
b. Soil Water note that this lesson is our gateway to help us
c. Soil Solid appreciate soils and its importance in the support of
d. Rocks life.
……………………

e. Minerals

Section 3.1
Let’s Dirty! What’s in the soil clod?

Feeling the soil. In this activity, we will use our senses

(touch, smell, and sight) to let us have a better
understanding on the basic components of soil

Procedure
 Go outside and get a clod of soil.
 Examine the clod and identify the three
components using your touch, sight, and sense of
smell.

Analysis
A Typical Soil Clod
 Order the three components from the most
obvious to the less obvious.
 In your own context Order the different
components according to their importance to
plant growth.

Basic Composition of the Soil | 29

Components of the Three-Phase System

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Air
Soil Water
Soil Solid

Solids
 mineral part - mineral particles- sand, silt, and clay
o Sand – 0.05 to 2.0 mm
o Silt – 0.002 to 0.05 mm
o Clay – smaller than 0.002 mm size
classification ranges.
 organic part - plant material, decomposing
microorganisms, worms, peat moss, etc.

Pores
 Soil Air
 Soil Water

For medium textured soils, volume percentage

of the various components are shown above:

All of parts together make up the soil. Since the soil is a medium for plant growth, we must ask:
What is the best “mixture” of the three phases for plant growth?

What would be the ideal soil for plant growth?

Basic Composition of the Soil | 30

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
When a balance (of the three phases) is not maintained
problems occur:
 too much water -- flooding
 not enough water -- dry soil, seeds may not
germinate, plants will wilt
 not enough air -- compact soil that will not grow
plants

o “Soil air” refers the air in the pores. It has lower oxygen content
and has higher carbon dioxide content than atmospheric air. Soil
has a large population of microorganism and the oxidative
respiration of these microbes contributes to the depletion of
oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide in soil air.

o “Soil water” refers to water in pores. It usually has a higher

solute concentration than water in surface water bodies (rivers and
lakes). For water to enter the pores, the air in them must be
excluded.

o Saturation – theoretical condition where all the pores are filled

with water. Air is totally excluded from the pores and the supply of
oxygen to the soil is cut. This can lead to the development of
reduced conditions that may greatly influence the types of chemical
reactions and the composition of the microbial community in the
soil.

o The composition of the soil solid phase determines whether

the soil is a “mineral soil” or “organic soil”. Information on the
amount of clay and organic carbon/organic matter are required to
classify the soil as either mineral or organic.

o Mineral soils are those having physical and chemical properties

that are largely determined by the mineral fraction of the soil. They
are supposed to be managed differently than organic soils.

Basic Composition of the Soil | 31

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Rocks and Minerals

 Most of the material that makes up soil comes from rocks and minerals.

 These rocks and minerals are weathered in place or weathered and transported
and become unconsolidated material on the surface of the earth. This material is
called regolith. The upper part of the regolith is soil.

 This unconsolidated material is acted on by the soil forming factors and soil is
formed. For this reason, the upper part of the regolith is called parent material.

Minerals

 a solid, inorganic, homogeneous, crystalline, element or

compound.
 Two types of minerals are found in natural systems:
primary and secondary.
▪ Whether the mineral is primary or secondary
depends on the mode of formation and not on
the mineral composition.
▪ minerals that crystallize from cooling magma are
called PRIMARY.
▪ minerals that crystallize during the weathering
of primary minerals are called SECONDARY
MINERALS.

Basic Composition of the Soil | 32

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Important Primary Minerals

Primary Minerals Chemical Formula

Quartz SiO2
Orthoclase / feldspar KAlSi3O8
Plagioclase /feldspar (Ca,Na) AlSi3O8
Muscovite / mica KAlSi3O10(OH)2
Biotite / mica KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2
Hornblende / Amphibole Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3Si6O22(OH)2
Augite / Pyroxene Ca2(Al,e)4(Mg, Fe)4Si6O24
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4

Important Secondary Minerals

a. Clay minerals- kaolinite, montmorillonite
Note: to be discussed further under the “chemical
properties” section

b. non-silicate/ amorphous
i. Oxides
Fe2O3 hematite
FeO(OH) goethite
Al(OH)3 gibbsite

ii. Carbonates
CaCO3 calcite
CaMg(CO3) dolomite

iii. Sulfates
CaSO4 . 2H2O gypsum

Soil Horizon

The clay fraction is largely composed of secondary minerals, while the silt and sand
fractions are usually composed of primary minerals.
Also, the sand fraction is usually composed of minerals that are relatively resistant to
weathering such as quartz.

Basic Composition of the Soil | 33

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Rocks

 an aggregate of one or more minerals.

 The mineral composition of rocks determines
their physical and chemical properties.

Types of Rocks

1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

Igneous Rocks

 solidified lava or magma

 Properties are a result of:
o Minerals in original magma
o Cooling (crystallizing) environment
Soil Horizon

Sedimentary Rocks Remember that all rocks started

out as igneous rocks
 from the deposition and cementation of slow cooling deep in the earth--
weathering products produces large mineral crystals
 Lithification – process of sedimentary rock rapid cooling at or near the
formation surface--produces small mineral
Sedimentary rocks are cemented together crystals
with pressure and/or chemicals. Igneous rocks may be the most
important of the three types
Example: because the other two forms are
alterations or changes of
✓ Sandstone - sand size grains cemented
igneous rocks.
together
✓ Shale - clay size grains cemented together
✓ Limestone - (CaCO3) is calcitic / (Ca, Mg)
(CO3)2 is dolomitic
✓ Cementing agents could either be Fe-
oxides(“rust”), carbonates, and even clay
particles.

Metamorphic Rocks
 from the alteration or preexisting rocks due to
heat and/or pressure
Examples:
✓ sandstone = forms quartzite
✓ limestone = forms marble
✓ shale = forms slate
✓ granite = forms gneiss

Basic Composition of the Soil | 34

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
The Rock Cycle

[Link]

Reflections Check Compare and contrast the different components of soil three-phase system.
Share your thoughts on the importance of understanding the components of soil three
phase system in the study of soils.

Basic Composition of the Soil | 35

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Section 3.2 Application

Think like an Artist!

Understand Soil Horizons
4. Explain the relevance of
understanding the different soil 1. Soil Horizon
Discuss soil
components in the study and components in your own
management of soils context.
5. WRITING in Soil Science 2. Differentiate rocks from
minerals
3. Discuss the rock cycle
Make a short Scientific Documentary
(Short Film) that features the roles of
the different soil components in crop
production

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and Classification.
John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Basic Composition of the Soil | 36

 Module 4 Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water

Lesson 1

Soil Physical Properties

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
Description of the soil profile and the soil horizons are
are expected to:
often described in the field in terms of the soil's
Explain the different types physical properties. Horizon boundaries within a soil
of soil physical properties profile are defined based on difference in the physical
and its importance in land
properties. Furthermore, soil physical properties are
use planning
also key determinants of the appropriate land use for
Key Concepts an area. In this lesson, we will get to know the different
soil physical properties and understand their
a. Soil Color importance in describing soils for classification and
b. Soil Texture management purposes.
c. Soil Structure
d. Soil Consistency
e. Soil Density
……………………

Section 4.1

No Soils are Exactly the Same! A glimpse on the physical properties of the soil
In this activity, we will compare soil clods and record their differences to
elucidate the uniqueness of each soil physical properties.

Procedure
 Go outside and get a clod of soil from two different depths.
 The first clod will be taken from within 0-3inches from the soil
surface while the second clod from 6-9 inches from the surface

Analysis
 Examine the clod and Describe its differences in terms of:
1. Color (Black, Brown, Red, etc.)
2. Its resistance to deformation (twist the clod and compare
which disintegrates/breaks easily)
3. Natural shape/pattern of its soil aggregate (from the result
of no. 2 take the disintegrated portion of the clod and A typical soil clod
record which has more angles or sharp edges
4. Again, take a portion of the clod (thumbs size) and
excessively wet it with water while holding it on your palm.
5. Press and rub it with your thumb. Determine which is
grittier.
 In your own reasoning identify which of the two (2) clods:
1. Provide better root penetration
2. Hold more water
3. Has more organic matter

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 37

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Color

 It is the most obvious and easily determined soil

physical property.
 It has little direct effect on the soil but is an
indicator of soil properties.
 There are many things we can tell about the soil by
observing the color.
• Organic matter content - the more organic
content the darker the soil color Horizon
Soil
• Soil color and soil temperature - dark colored
soils absorb more heat so they warm up Relationship of Soil
quicker and have higher soil temperatures. Color to Drainage
• Soil color and parent material - generally dark
parent material will develop into dark soils. Soil Color is very
• Soil color and drainage - soil drainage refers to important in
the length of time a soil is waterlogged. Not determining a soils
how fast the soil is drained. drainage and depth to
the water table. It can
be very important in
Soil Drainage: refers to the length and duration of predicting land use
saturation and is not a measure of how fast water drains hazards.
from the soil.

Soil Drainage Classes

• Well-drained - no gray colors with the top 48
inches
• Moderately well-drained - gray colors between
24 to 48 inches from the surface
• Somewhat poorly drained - gray colors
between 12 to 24 inches from surface
• Poorly drained - gray colors within 12
inches from the surface
• Very Poorly drained – gray colors within 12
inches from the surface and has an O
horizon

When do we consider the color gray?

Use the Munsell Color Chart. A soil is considered gray if it has a CHROMA OF 2 OR LESS

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 38

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Color Measurement

Munsell Color System

 A standardized system used by soil scientists
and geologists.
 The system has the following color
Soil Horizon
parameters:
The Munsell color 1. Hue: dominant spectral color
system is a means to 2. Value: lightness - darkness; white to
visually identify and black
match color using a 3. Chroma: color purity or intensity
scientific approach.
Albert Munsell was Color Notation: 10YR 5/2
both a scientific thinker
and an artist who
• 10YR – the Hue
wanted artists and • 5 – the Value
scientists to have a • 2 – the chroma
system that made it
easy to express colors
in a concrete way. Additional things to take note:

 red, yellow, and light brown colors – likely due to

Fe oxides
 dark brown or black colors – likely due to organic
matter or Mn oxides
 low color value = high organic matter content
 high chroma = well drained soil, oxidizing
conditions
 chroma or 2 or less = red Fe-oxide coatings had
been removed under reducing conditions

The Munsell Color Chart

Brady et al. 2017. The Nature and
Properties of Soil

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 39

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
Soil Texture

 A soil's texture is then the relative proportion of

SAND, SILT, and CLAY. We will be using these
 Together, these three SOIL SEPARATES must separates the rest of the
add up to be 100%.
semester:
 The organic matter is not a part of the soil's
texture. Soil Effective
 Each soil separate represents a distinct physical Separates Diameter
size group of mineral particles. Sand 2.0 - 0.05 mm
 Since there is such many combinations that Silt 0.05 - 0.002 mm
could occur, soil scientists’ group similar Clay <0.002 mm
amounts of sand, silt and clay into groups called
soil textural classes or textural grades.
 There are 12 textural classes and classification
into a specific soil textural class uses the Soil
Textural Triangle
For a more detailed
textural classification the
sand fraction is further
divided into the following
Very Coarse
2.0 - 1.0 mm
Sand
Coarse Sand 1.0 - 0.5 mm
Medium Sand 0.5 - 0.25 mm
0.25 - 0.10
Fine Sand
mm
Very Fine 0.10 - 0.05
Sand mm

Modifiers that are used for

coarse materials that are
Soil Textural Triangle greater than 2 mm
Excerpt from: [Link]
(effective diameter).
gravels 2mm - 3 in
cobbles 3 in - 10 in
Materials belonging to the same textural stones 10 in - 24 in
classification generally behave similarly and
may be managed similarly. boulders > 24 in
……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 40

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
Other important effects of Soil Texture:

Specific Surface Area

 the amount of particle surface area exposed and

available as a site for chemical and physical
processes per unit mass or volume of soil. The
finer the particle sizes of the soil mass, the larger
the specific surface area.

Estimates of Specific Surface Area:

• 1g of sand = 1.5 ft2

• 1g of silt = 14.9 ft2
• 1g of clay = 262,467 ft2

Specific Surface Area affects the:

1. adsorption of water
2. area for chemical reactions
3. adsorption of nutrients
4. plasticity
5. shrink/swell

Soil Texture and Management

Coarse Textured Soils (sands, loamy sands)

• Hold low amounts of water and nutrients - may have to irrigate and fertilize
frequently
• Not highly erosive - allows water to infiltrate, less runoff
• Very permeable - good for waste disposal only if a deep soil
• May compact to form a hardpan

Fine textured soils (clays, sandy clays, silty clays)

• Hold large amounts of nutrients and water - may hold things too tightly
• Erosion - slow infiltration; high runoff means much erosion.
• Slow permeability - often unacceptable for septic tanks
• May shrink/swell - depends upon the type of clay minerals present

Medium Textured Soils (loams, clay loams, sandy loams, silt loams)
• Properties fall in between the other two.
……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 41

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
Soil Structure

 The arrangement of primary sand, silt and clay

particles into secondary aggregates called
peds or structural units which have distinct
shapes and are easy to recognize.
 These differently shaped aggregates are called
the structural type.

TYPES: There are 5 basic types of structural units:

1. Platy: Plate-like aggregates that form

parallel to the horizons like pages in a
book.
▪ This type of structure may reduce
air, water, and root movement.
▪ Common structure in an E horizon
and usually not seen in other
horizons.

2. Blocky: Two types--angular blocky and

subangular blocky
▪ These types of structures are
commonly seen in the B horizon.
▪ Angular is cube-like with sharp
corners while subangular blocky
has rounded corners.

3. Prismatic: Vertical axis is longer than the

horizontal axis. If the top is flat, it is
referred to as prismatic. If the top is
rounded, it is called columnar.

4. Granular: Peds are round and porous,

spheroidal. This is usually the structure of
A horizons.

5. Structureless: No observable aggregation

or structural units.
▪ Single grain-sand
▪ Massive-solid mass without
aggregates

Types of Structural Units

……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 42

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
GRADES: Grade of structure – relates to the degree of
inter-aggregate adhesion and to aggregate stability.
1. Structureless - particles are not arranged to
aggregate or peds
2. Weak – poorly formed peds or aggregates that
are barely observable in place
3. Moderate – well-formed and moderately
durable peds that are not very distinct in
undisturbed soils
4. Strong – durable peds that are quite evident in
undisturbed soil but may be separated when
Soil Horizon the soil is disturbed.

CLASS: Class of structure - Describes size of the

In describing the aggregates.
structure, the Class, 1. very fine
Grade and Type must 2. fine
be indicated (in this 3. medium
particular order). 4. coarse
5. very coarse
Example: coarse, strong,
sub-angular blocky Note: the exact dimension for each class varies from one
type to another

Processes involved in formation of soil structure

1. wetting / drying
2. root pressure
3. microorganisms – effect of fungal hypha or
mucilaginous bacterial exudates
4. cementing by clay, organic matter, iron and
aluminum compounds

Importance of Soil Structure

1. Increases infiltration of water, thus reducing
runoff and erosion and increases the amount of
plant available water.
2. Improves seedling emergence, root growth and
rooting depth.
3. Large continuous pores increase permeability.

Tips in Maintaining favorable Soil Structure for Plant Growth

Till soil only at the proper wetness. Never till when the soil is too wet. This will cause the soil to
become cloddy and the aggregates to be destroyed.
Add the proper amounts of lime and fertilizer. Proper plant growth will lead to the development of
good soil structure.
Maintain or increase organic matter contents of Ap horizon.
……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 43

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
Soil Consistency

 Expresses cohesive and adhesive forces

holding soil particles together; varies with
moisture content. Soil Horizon
 Describes the resistance of a soil at various
moisture contents to mechanical stress or
Soil consistence
manipulation.
indicates:
 It refers to the degree of plasticity and
stickiness of the soil.  where are zones that
 Soil consistence is affected by the type and may restrict root
amount of clay that is in the soil. growth and seedling
emergence.
 whether a soil is
Description of Consistence:
likely to develop
compacted zones;
Described at three moisture levels:
ruts, crusts,
1. Wet
hardpans etc...
Stickiness (non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky,
very sticky)
Plasticity (non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic,
very plastic)
2. Moist
Very friable, friable, firm, very firm
3. Dry
Loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard,
extremely hard

Soil Density

Two Expressions of Soil Density:

1. Particle Density (Dp)
 the density of the soil solids alone
(volume of pores excluded in Note that
computation)
 determined by the mineralogy of the soil
material For most soils, this
assumed to be 2.65 g-3
Dp = mass of Oven-dried Soil ÷ volume of which is the Dp for
soil solids or quartz.
Dp = mass Soil Solids ÷ volume of soil
solids
……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 44

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
2. Bulk Density (Db)
 density of the bulk soil (volume of pores
included in the computation)
 determined by mineralogy as well as packing
and sorting of soil particles
 index of compaction.
 Soil of a given texture is considered compact if
its bulk density is close to the bulk densities
Remember outlined in the table below.
that
Db = mass of oven-dried Soil ÷ bulk volume of
soil material
Bulk density is related
to the amount of pores or
in the soil. The greater
the total pore space the Db = mass soil solids ÷ (volume of soil solids +
lower the bulk density volume of pores)

Maximum soil densities for common soil textures. Roth, 1997

Soil Horizon

As bulk density
increases:  Bulk density is affected by the solids and pore
 soil strength space:
increases o high pore space = low bulk density
 pore space o low pore space = high bulk density
decreases ▪ fine textures silt loams, clay, clay
 soils become loam - generally lower bulk
more compact density 0.9-1.6 g/cc
▪ sandy soils may range 1.2 - 1.8
g/cc
▪ strong structure (well granulated
topsoil) - low bulk density
▪ high organic matter = low bulk
density
……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 45

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………
Other Important Soil Physical Properties:

1. Porosity (f) = a soil physical property which

indicates how much of the bulk volume of the
soil is occupied by pores. This can be
expressed as a decimal or as a percentage.
Porosity values normally range from 0.35 to
0.65. Non-compacted medium-textured soils
may be assumed to have porosity of 0.5 or
50%.
f= volume pores ÷ bulk volume or total
volume of soil

By doing a simple derivation, porosity can also

be computed as:

f= 1- (Db/Dp)
Soils with a high porosity means:

a. The soil can accommodate a large volume

of air and water.
b. Air and water movement may be
effective.
c. Limited or no problem of root
penetration.
d. Soil is relatively less prone to erosion.

2. Penetration Resistance (PR) – this a

measure of the resistance offered by the soil
against root penetration. This is largely a
function of the soil bulk density and Soil Penetrometer
[Link]
consistency. is/thumb_agbs70-[Link]

Penetration resistance is measured using a

standardized penetrometer. Units of the
measurements are units of pressure.

3. Hydraulic Conductivity (K) – a parameter

describing the soil’s ability to transmit water

-to be discussed further under “Soil Water”-

……

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 46

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Section 4.2 Application

Understanding Soil Horizons

Soil Horizon
1. Discuss Why is
Think like a farmer! characterization of soil physical
properties important?
2. Differentiate static from dynamic
Consider you want to expand properties.
your farm production by 3. Enumerate What are examples of
acquiring more fields important properties that can be
inferred from soil color?
4. Explain What do we use/how is
8. WRITING in Soil Science soil color described?
5. Discuss What is the benefit of
Make a blueprint/guide that
classifying the soil into textural
answer the following: What
grades?
do you think would be the
ideal values of the different soil 6. Explain What are the different
physical properties that you structural types and describe how
want as basis for acquiring water moves through a soil having
new agricultural fields? such structures?
7. Discuss How can good soil
structure be
maintained/developed?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification. John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water| 47

 Module 4 Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water

Lesson 2

Soil Water

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you are
expected to: Soil water content and the soil’s ability to
transmit water through its pore spaces and
Explain the different
expressions of soil water and fractures (hydraulic conductivity) are dynamic
its importance in crop soil physical properties.
production
Although they are not as important as soil
Key Concepts texture, soil structure, soil color, soil consistence,
a. Saturation soil density in characterizing the soil profile or
b. Field capacity classifying the soil, soil water content and
c. Permanent Wilting Point
hydraulic conductivity are very important in
d. Gravitational Water
e. Total Available deciding the appropriate land management
Water/Plant Available scheme for a given area.
Water
f. Volumetric Water Content
g. Gravimetric Water Content
h. Thickness of Water
i. Hydraulic Conductivity
j. Soil Drainage
Section 4.3
……………

Soils are more like a sponge! Understanding Soil Water

In this activity, we will demonstrate how soils absorbs and holds water through the use of our common
dish washing sponge. Soils are more like sponges as it has small and big pores that water can be held.

Procedure
 Prepare a sponge (must be in good condition at least 1 inch thick)
 Also, prepare a basin with 2 liters of tap water.
 Soak the sponge in the basin with the water.
 Wait until the sponge is fully soaked.
 After fully soaking the sponge, gradually lift it while holding it gently careful not to squeeze it.
Make sure to observe the movement of water coming out from the sponge.
 After a few moments you will notice that water will stop dripping from the sponge. Slowly
squeeze the sponge using your full grip.
 After squeezing, place the sponge on a clean dry tissue or paper
 Observe if the tissue or paper is dampened by the sponge.

Analysis
 Give your own explanation why water continuously drips for a certain amount of time from the
sponge after it was lifted out from the water.
 After the water stops dripping are empty spaces/pores in the sponge still filled with water? What
could be the reason?
 Is the tissue or paper dampened by the sponge after you place it on top of it? What could be the
reason?

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water | 48

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Qualitative expressions of soil water content:

1. Saturation – all the pores are filled with Gravitational Water – water
water drained from the pores due to the
action of gravity
2. Field Capacity (FC) – water content
referring to water left in the soil after
gravitational water has drained.

• For medium-textured soils, this is

usually achieved three days after the end Soil Horizon
of a rain event/irrigation event that fully
saturates a certain horizon/location in Field capacity
the soil. technically refers to
a condition where
3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) - water water is held by the
content referring to a condition wherein the soil by tensions of
0.3 bar to 15 bars
quantity of water in the field is very low
such that plants growing in it will wilt
beyond recovery.

4. Total Available Water/Plant-Available

Water Soil Horizon
 Amount of water (expressed in a volume
or mass basis) that is considered Permanent wilting point
available for plant use. technically refers to a
 Computed as the difference between the condition where water is
water content at FC and PWP (FC-PWP). held by the soil by a
tension of 15 bars or
more.
Quantitative Expressions of Soil Water Content:

1. Volumetric Water Content –(ϴ) = volume

of water per bulk volume of soil
ϴ = volume of water ÷ bulk volume of soil
Note: ϴ common unit = cm3/cm3
(which includes the volume of pores)

2. Gravimetric Water Content (w) = mass of

water per mass of soil solids
w = mass of water ÷ mass of soil solids (or
dry mass of soil) Note: w common unit = g/g

3. Thickness of water (l) = equivalent

thickness of water in a given thickness of
soil
Note: l common unit = cm or mm
l = ϴ × thickness of soil considered

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water | 49

 Hydraulic Conductivity (k)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
 A physical parameter which relates to the
ability of the water to allow water to pass or
permeate through it.
 Under saturated conditions, the ability of the
soil to transmit water is known as Saturated
Note: computations of k are
Hydraulic Conductivity or Ksat.
discussed in detail in higher Soil
Science courses but not in this  Under unsaturated conditions, the ability of the
course soil to transmit water is known as Unsaturated
Hydraulic Conductivity or Kunsat
 Units – usually expressed as cm travelled by
water per hour (cm/h)
 Computed using the following Darcy’s Law
Equation:

Soil Horizon k= Darcian flux ÷ hydraulic gradient

Hydraulic Conductivity
Soil Hydraulic Conductivity vs Soil drainage
• if K is high: water
moves quickly 1. Hydraulic Conductivity is the speed of water
• if K is low: water movement in a soil. This is affected by texture
moves slowly and structure
Drainage 2. Drainage is the frequency and duration of
• A sand could have a saturation. The time that the soil is
high conductivity, waterlogged. This is affected by landscape
but in a low position and conductivity.
landscape position
and be poorly Factors affecting hydraulic conductivity.
drained.
• A clay loam could 1. Water content. This is not a factor for Ksat. But
have a high Kunsat is affected by water content. Unsaturated
conductivity, but in a hydraulic conductivity declines with drop in
low landscape water content
position and be
poorly drained. 2. Pore size present in the soil
• A clay may have a Water moves faster through larger pores than
very low smaller pores.
conductivity but 3. Pore Continuity
may be well drained High Conductivity - contains pores which are
because it is at the continuous and large enough for water to pass
top of a hill. through. This is expected in course-texture
soils where pores tend to be large and
continuous.
4. Natural aggregation of the separates will
increase the large pore space. When soils with
good structure are compacted the large pore,
space is lost because the big pores are
squashed.

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water | 50

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
This is why it is important to maintain good
soil structure if it already exists.

5. Other factors:
Root and worm channels: increase
permeability by forming large continuous
pores throughout the soil. These pores must
extend from the soil surface to depth. These
allow for rapid water infiltration.
Organic matter: increases permeability by
promoting aggregation and increasing the
stability of soil aggregates. Remember that
organic matter decomposes to form glues,
gums, etc. that help cement or stick soil
particles together. Organic matter forms large
pores when plant residues are added or left
on the soil surface.

Important Terms:
Why run-off matter?

Infiltration Surface run-off is the

 Entry of the water through the soil surface main cause of
 This is influenced by the properties of the phosphorus loss in
surface and porosity and structure of the sub- most agricultural
surface fields. These P
 Areas with high infiltration rate usually does nutrients can cause
not keep water ponded at the surface. detrimental effects on
 When water ponded at the surface moves bodies of water
horizontally, it is called “runoff” and it can through a
cause soil erosion phenomenon called
“Eutrophication”.

Reflections Check Explain the relevance of understanding the concept of soil water
Compare and contrast the qualitative and quantitative expression of soil water.
Discuss the importance of soil water knowledge in crop production and
management

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water | 51

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Section 4.4 Application

Understanding Soil Horizon

Think like a manager
Soil Horizon
1. Explain What
are the three qualitative
As if you are the one in-charge of the expressions of soil water
banana plantation’s irrigation system content?
2. Show How are the TAW
Scenario: and amount of gravitational
The banana plantation is divided by two water computed?
soil types: clay and sandy loam. It rained 3. Discuss What are three
on a Monday saturating the soil. quantitative expressions of
water content?
Questions: 4. Explain What is hydraulic
6. Which of the two (2) soils you think conductivity?
have retained more water after one 5. Discuss What influences
(1) week? Why? hydraulic conductivity of
7. During that year there was forecast soil in the field?
of a potential drought however the
company has limited budget on its
drip irrigation. Only one (1) of the
two soils will have an irrigation set-
up. As the manager, which soil type
will you prioritize? Why?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification. John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water | 52

Module 5 Soil Chemical Properties

Lesson 1

Importance of Chemical Properties, Soil

Colloids and Basic Clay Mineralogy
(Silicate Clays)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you are
Welcome to module 5! This module will allow you
expected to:
to unlock the chemical wonder of the soil.
Identify and understand the Learning the basic principle of soil chemical
importance of soil chemical
properties in relation to
property would help (you) young
agriculture and student/agriculturist understand the behavior
environmental management. and fate of elements (essential, non-essential,
toxic, heavy metals) in the soil environment and to
Key Concepts
understand the relationship of this property to the
a. Soil Colloids overall soil functioning. Enjoy and get ready to
b. Amorphous Clays
c. Structured Clays
rock and roll of soil’s amazing chemistry!
d. Sheet
…………………………

e. Lamellae
f. Clay

Section 5.1

Soil has charges The Chemistry in Soils

In this activity, you need to prepare two (2) bar magnets, preferably labeled. The purpose of this activity is
to show unlike charges (+ and -) attract and like charges (+ and + or – and -) repel
S
Procedure
 Hold the negative (-) ends of the magnets together
 Observe how they repel
 Then hold the negative (-) to the positive (+) and witness how they attract.

Analysis
 Discuss What causes the attraction and repulsion of the magnets?
 Relate your observation to the basic chemistry concepts.

Soil Chemical Properties | 63

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Importance of Soil Chemical Properties

 they affect nutrient availability to plants.

 they affect the fate of chemicals added to the
soil. Soil Horizon
 they affect the dominant biology and physical
properties of the soil system. Remember that:
Most of the chemical
properties of soils
Soil Colloids are associated with
soil colloids.
 mineral or organic particles in soil having a
diameter less than 0.001 mm or 0.005 to 1.0
μm (within clay size range) which remain
suspended in a liquid medium for long
periods of time.
 colloids have high surface area per unit mass

In most soils, the surfaces of the colloids have a negative (-) charge thus
they have the ability to attract (to hold) cations. (Opposite charges
attract). Chemical reactions take place on the colloid surface.

Types of Soil Colloids

1. Organic Colloids – humus
2. Inorganic Colloids – clay colloids
Examples of clay colloids
• layer silicate clays
• oxide clays
• amorphous clays Soil Horizon

In order to understand
Clay Structure
the chemistry of a soil
Two general types of clay (general structural you must know what
classification): clay minerals are
1. Amorphous clays present and their
2. Structured (Example: Silicate Clays) contribution to the
negative charge.

Why focus on clay?

Amorphous Clays
 composed of silica (silicon oxide, SiO2) and Because the chemistry
alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3) or Fe oxides of a soil body/soil mass
that are mixed together WITHOUT forming is largely a function of
well-oriented crystals. the properties of the
 common in humid tropical climates (highly clay fraction.
weathered soils) and in soils developed from
volcanic ash (Andisol).

Soil Chemical Properties | 64

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Silicate Clays
 normally have Al, Si, O (or OH), with
substitutions including K, Mg, etc. in their
structure
 crystalline, sometimes amorphous
 contribute to a wide range of soil properties
 common in temperate climates

2 Basic Structural Units (Building Blocks)

of Structured Clays

Silicon (Si 4+) tetrahedron (A) and Aluminum (Al 3+) octahedron (B).

Soil Chemical Properties | 65

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Remember that:

A series of structural units that are bonded together will form a “sheet”

Adjacent sheets are bonded together will form “layers” or “lamellae”

Soil Chemical Properties | 66

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
A series of “layers” or “lamellae” makes up a clay particle

Surface Charge

Source of Surface Charge

1. Permanent charge of clays results from

isomorphous substitution, which is the
replacement of one atom by another of similar
size in a crystal structure.
2. pH dependent charge
a. Organic matter
b. Edges of clay (Si-OH)

Soil Horizon
Because soils have negative charge, they are able to hold positively
charged cations.

Soil Chemical Properties | 67

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Permanent or Fixed Charge: Isomorphic substitution

Tetrahedron
Al3+ replaces Si4+ leaving the clay particle with extra negative charge

Octahedron
Mg2+ replaces Al3+ leaving the clay particle with extra negative charge

Common Types of Silicate Clays:

1. 1: 1 – Kaolinite
2. 2:1
a. 2:1 expanding – Vermiculite and montmorillonite
b. 2:1 non-expanding – illite
c. 2:1:1 – chlorite

Soil Chemical Properties | 68

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Section 5.2 Application

Understanding Soil Horizon

Think like a scientist! 1. Explain What Soil Horizon

are soil colloids?

2. Discuss the two general
6. Explain Why is it important to types of clays.
have some idea of the 3. Explain the building blocks
chemistry of soils? of structure clays.
4. List down the common type
7. List down the sources of
of silicate clay minerals and
charge (+ and -) of the clay their structure.
particle. 5. List down common
amorphous minerals.

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition.
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification. John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Chemical Properties | 69

Module 5 Soil Chemical Properties

Lesson 2

Ion Exchange (Cation and Anion Exchange

Capacity) and Base Saturation

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you are
expected to: Soil is a dynamic system and soil chemistry is
one of its dynamic properties. The activity of
Identify and understand the
importance of several soil
ions in the soil is governed by many factors
chemical properties in such as the presence of cations (positively
relation to agriculture and charged ions) and anions (negatively charged
environmental management.
ions). This lesson will help you understand how
Key Concepts ion exchange happens and to appreciate the
importance of cation and anion exchange
a. Ion Exchange
b. Cation Exchange
capacity including base saturation in relation to
c. Anion Exchange soil management.
d. Cation Exchange Capacity
e. Base Saturation
…………………………

Section 5.3
Soils can exchange things Cation Exchange

What is ion exchange? In this activity, you will watch a video that pertains cation exchange.

Procedure
 Visit [Link] and please copy the URL below to watch the video on Youtube.
[Link]

Analysis
 Discuss What was the video all about?
 Share your thoughts What have you learned from the video?

Soil Chemical Properties | 70

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Ion Exchange

 reversible process by which ions are exchanged between solid and liquid phases
and between solid phases if in close contact with each other
 this will occur because of the presence of electrical charges in the soil.

Two types of Ion Exchange:

1. Cation Exchange
2. Anion Exchange

Cation Exchange
 is the attraction of cations (positively charged ions) on the surface of the colloids
(negative) and exchanged for ions in the soil solution (examples: NH4+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, H+, K+,)

Anion Exchange
 is the attraction of anions (negatively charged ions) on the surface of the colloids
(positive) and exchanged for ions in the soil solution (examples: NO 3-, PO4-, SO4-)

Anion Exchange Capacity

 the ability or capacity of a soil colloid to “sorb” anions that can be exchanged with
anions in solution

Cation Exchange Process

 Exchange of cations in solution with cations sorbed on soil surfaces/exchange site

Soil Chemical Properties | 71

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Properties of the Cation Exchange Process:
 Rapid
Order of Preference  Reversible
for Cation Adsorption  Stoichiometric
on Soil Particles

Al3+>Ca2+>Mg2+>NH4+> Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

K+>Na+>Li+  the ability or capacity of a soil colloid to “sorb”
cations that can be exchanged with cations in
solution.
o Sorption is a surface phenomenon, so
CEC is correlated with amount of
surface exposed.

Degree of Adsorption depends on:

1. Valences
2. Radii
3. Hydration properties

Example of Acidic cations The amount of cations a soil can hold is dependent
in soil or soil solution on:
• H+ - contributes
directly to acidity  amount of charge on the soil colloid. – related to
• Al3+ - contributes type of clay
indirectly to acidity via  how much clay is present – influences surface
hydrolysis reactions
area exposed
• Example:
1. Al3+ + H2O -(OH)2+  type of clay that is present
+ H+  how much organic matter is present
2. Al(OH)2+ + H2O -  Hydrous Oxides of Fe and Al
Al(OH)2+ + H+
 pH
3. Al(OH)2+ + H2O -
Al(OH)3 + H+
• A mole of Al3+
contributes to 3 moles Base Saturation or Percentage (%) Base Saturation
of acidity (H+) in
solution. There are two groups of adsorbed ions:
• Most of the other 1. Acidic Cations
cations sorbed are 2. Basic Cations
“exchangeable bases”
• These are cations that % Base Saturation
neutralize soil acidity  the proportion of the cation exchange capacity
and dominate in occupied by these bases. Can be computed
neutral and alkaline following the formula:
soils.
[exchangeable bases (cmol/kg)]/ [CEC
Examples of basic cations
(cmol/kg)]
in soil or soil solution
Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+  The most common method of CEC
determination is the Ammonium Acetate
(NH4OAc) Method

Soil Chemical Properties | 72

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Section 5.4 Application

Understanding Soil Horizon

Soil Horizon
Think like a scientist! 1. Explain What
is isomorphous substitution
and how does it occur in the
octahedron and tetrahedron?
6. Explain the generalized
2. Discuss What is cation
relationship between CEC and
exchange capacity?
fertility?
3. Explain the relationship
7. Tabulate the different types of between soil texture, specific
inorganic and organic colloids surface, and CEC?
and their CEC. 4. Discuss what does a high %
base saturation mean?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition.
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105
pp.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Chemical Properties | 73

Module 5 Soil Chemical Properties

Lesson 3

Soil pH and Liming

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you are
Welcome to lesson 3. Have you ever
expected to:
wondered why some plants grow well in a
Identify and understand the certain type of soil while others cannot? Did
importance of several soil
chemical properties in
you know that the nutrients needed by the
relation to agriculture and plants to survive are dependent on soil’s
environmental management. vitally important property like soil pH? Now,
get ready to unravel the secret behind soil
Key Concepts
reaction (pH) and its relation and role to soil
a. Soil Reaction or pH nutrition and environmental issues.
b. Soil Acidity
c. Liming
d. Lime Requirement
…………………………

Section 5.5

Acidic Basic Soil pH

Is it acidic or basic? In this activity, you will learn and appreciate soil pH determination and its
significance.

Procedure
 You will prepare about a half kilo of different types of soil such as ordinary garden soil,
soil from crop land, and red soil. Put each type of soil in a clear plastic bag and label it.
 Please arrange a common time with the instructor to test the pH of the prepared soil in
the lab.
 In case you cannot arrange this with your instructor, you can watch videos on Youtube
on topics related to determination of pH in the soil.

Analysis
 What is pH a measure of?
 How do we measure the pH of soil?
 What range of pH in soil is optimum for specific plants?
 How does adding fertilizer and lime affect the pH of soil?
 What factors contribute to changing pH levels in soil?
 What are some environmental issues related to soil pH?

Soil Chemical Properties | 74

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
SOIL pH or SOIL REACTION

 It refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil due

to the relative concentration of H+ and OH- ions.
 It is one of the most important chemical
Soil Horizon
properties of the soil
 It affects the availability of nutrient elements in Note:
the soil as well as the microbial activities
associated with soil fertility *pH scale covers a
 It is defined as the negative logarithm of the range from 0-14,
hydrogen ion concentration in the soil *pH value of 7.0 is
 Defined by the equation: neutral (pure water)

*values below 7.0 are

Soil pH = - log [ H+]
acid and above 7.0 are
basic.
Where [H+] = concentration of H+ in moles/L
*each unit change in pH
is associated with
Soil pH in relation to Nutrient Solubility tenfold change in the
H+ concentration.

Relationship of soil pH and nutrient solubility

Measuring Acidity using pH Meter

 pH measures active
acidity or the H+
concentration of the soil
solution.
 pH = -log [H+] where H+ is the
concentration in moles per
liter

Soil Chemical Properties | 75

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Importance of Knowing Soil pH
1. Major determinant of nutrient availability.
a. Example: Phosphorus ions – usually not in
plant-available forms at pH of <4.5 and >8.
2. Influences microbial activity.
a. Example: Activity of bacteria is adversely
affected at low pH.
3. May have direct influence on the growth of
crops.
a. Example: At low pH, Al3+ concentration
may be very high and could cause injury to
plants
4. Each plant has its own optimum pH range –
tells you what to plant

Causes of Soil Acidity

1. Parent Material - Rocks from which soil was

formed may have been basic or acidic

2. Rainfall - The higher the average annual rainfall

the more leaching. Basic cations are removed
more readily than H+ and Al+3.

3. Native vegetation or Organic acids from

organic matter decomposition - Soils under
forest are more acid than those under grassland.
Decomposition of O.M. forms acid; CO2 evolved
forms H2CO3

production of CO2 during organic matter decomposition is responsible for the

lowering of pH of calcareous soils.

4. Fertilizer containing ammonium (NH4+) -

Conversion of NH4+ (ammonium) to NO3- (nitrate)
produces H+ ions.
5. Heavy cropping removes basic cations and
replaced by H+ ions from roots (crop removal).
6. Hydrolysis of Aluminum (Al) - Al can come from
clay structures
7. Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) Dissociation - CO2 + H2O
= H2CO3 = 2 H+ CO3 2-

Soil Chemical Properties | 76

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Correcting Soil Acidity by Liming

 Lime – any calcium (Ca2+) and /or magnesium

(Mg2+) containing compound used to neutralize
soil acidity or oxide, hydroxide or carbonates of
Ca or Mg.
 Liming material -Oxides or Hydroxides or
Carbonates of Ca and/or Mg that are added to the Soil Horizon
soil to raise soil pH to desired level
Examples: How lime neutralizes
CaCO3, CaO, Ca(OH)2, MgCO3, CaMgCO3 acidity?

Sample Reaction:
Factors Influencing the Quality of Liming Materials CaCO3 + H2O → Ca2+ +
1. purity - any impurities in the lime will reduce its HCO3- + OH–
ability to neutralize acidity. (sand, rocks, clay, OH- can react with H+
etc.) → HOH (water) or to
2. fineness - large particles react more slowly and precipitate Al as
less completely than fine particles Al(OH)3

Lime Requirement – the amount of liming  Lime reduces the

material required to raise the pH to a desirable concentration of H+
level and is determined by: ions and increases
- required change in pH and the concentration
- texture of OH - ions and
adds nonacid
Note: The finer the texture, the higher the CEC forming cations.
and greater the buffering capacity of the soil.  The material must
contain an anion
Benefits of Lime in the Soil that combines with
and neutralizes H+
a. Physical – increased granulation as calcium ions and Al ions.
favors flocculation but the effect is largely
indirect due to favorable effect on organisms
which decompose OM
b. Chemical – neutralization of H+ ions;
increased availability of phosphorus (P),
molybdenum (Mo), Calcium (Ca), potassium
(K); reduced solubility and toxicity of iron (Fe),
aluminum (Al), and manganese (Mn).

c. Biological – promotes activity of

microorganisms such as those that decompose
organic matter (OM), mineralize nutrients and
fix nitrogen (N) symbiotically, but it may
encourage potato scab

Soil Chemical Properties | 77

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Section 5.6 Application

Understanding Soil Horizon

Think like a scientist! 1. Soil Horizon
Differentiate
the two types of acidity?
2. Explain How can acidity be
5. Explain the relationship of soil neutralized?
nutrients and pH? 3. Explain the implication of
the categories of soil pH?
6. List down the common type of
4. Discuss What happen to the
lime used for agricultural
purposes. soil pH when the H+
concentration of the soil
solution increases?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition.
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105
pp.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines.
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Chemical Properties | 78

Module 5 Soil Chemical Properties

Lesson 4

Salinity and Sodicity

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you are
Salinity and sodicity are among the most
expected to:
important and widespread soil degradation
Identify and understand the processes and environmental/ecological
importance of several soil
chemical properties in
stresses in the biosphere. They limit the
relation to agriculture and agro-ecological potential and represent a
environmental management. considerable ecological and socio-
economical risk for sustainable
Key Concepts
development. In this lesson, you will
a. Salinity appreciate the importance of conserving the
b. Sodicity
c. Salinization
quality of our soil for sustainable land use.
d. Sodification Enjoy and get ready to explore!
…………………………

Section 5.7

Soil has Charges Salinity and Sodicity

In this activity, you will watch a video that pertains salinity and sodicity.

Procedure
 Visit [Link] and watch the video.
 After watching the video, you may explore to do the same activity on different types of
soil (sand, clay, and ordinary garden soil).
 Record your observations for each type of soil.

Analysis
 What could be the reasons why wet soil generates electricity that causes lighting of the
bulb?

Soil Chemical Properties | 79

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Soil Salinization

 Is a process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble salts in soils or

soil horizon.
 Or the excessive increase in water soluble salts in soil
 Salts are chloride and sulfates of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.

Saline Soils
 Are those soils that contain sufficient salinity to give electrical conductivity
(EC) values greater than 4 dS/m, but have an exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) less than 15 (or an sodium adsorption ration (SAR) less than 13) in the
saturation extract.
 The exchange complex of saline soils is dominated by calcium and magnesium,
not sodium.
 The pH of saline soils is usually below 8.5.
 Also known as white alkali, because in many cases, the evaporation of water
creates a white salt crust on the soil surface.

Soil Sodification
 Is a process that leads to an accumulation of sodium (Na+) in the solid or
liquid phases of the soil as crystalized NaHCO3 or Na2CO3 salt in high alkaline
soil solution as exchangeable Na ion on the soil adsorption complex.

Soil Salinization Processes

1. Primary Salinization – accumulation of salts through natural processes such as

physical or chemical weathering and in some cases transport from saline
geological deposits or ground water.
2. Secondary Salinization – accumulation of salts through human interventions,
inappropriate irrigation (salt-rich irrigation water) and poor drainage.

Saline-Sodic Soils

 Soils that have both detrimental levels of neutral soluble salts (EC, greater
than 4 dS/m) and a high proportion of sodium ions
 Plant growth in these soils can be adversely affected by both excess salts and
excess sodium levels.
 Exhibit physical conditions intermediate between those of saline soils and
those of sodic soils.

Soil Chemical Properties | 80

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Section 5.8 Application

Understanding Soil Horizon

Think like a scientist!

Soil Horizon
2. Discuss the possible 1. List down the
detrimental effects to plants most common soluble salts.
when soil is saline?
3. Explain the disadvantages of
sodic soils?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition.
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105
pp.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines.
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Chemical Properties | 81

 Module 6 Soil Biology and Organic Matter

Lesson 1

Soil Biology

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: Soil properties are strongly influenced by the
activity of the organisms that inhabit the soil. In
Understand the
importance of soil
this lesson you will learn the macro and
biological properties in microorganisms that inhabit the soil and their
agriculture and the roles in the proper functioning of a healthy
environment
agricultural soil.
Key Concepts
a. Macrofauna
b. Microfauna
c. Microflora
d. Decomposition
e. Phototrophic
……………………

f. Chemotrphic
g. Heterotrophs
h. Autotrophs

Section 6.1
1.1
Soils are Alive!

In this activity, we will observe the organisms that is found

on and underneath its surface.

Procedure
 Go outside and shovel approximately 6inches deep
from the soil surface
 Observe any organisms in the exposed soil
 Get a clod from the shoveled soil and smell if there
is any.
Analysis
 What part of the soil the macro organisms are
mostly found? And what could be the reason of
them flourishing on that particular portion of the
soil
 Does the soil produce a distinct smell? What could
be the reason for it?

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 53

Macrofauna
1. Vertebrates (e.g. rodents)
2. Annelids
e.g. Earthworms
1. process up to 15 tons of casts/Acre/year
2. borings which may improve aeration and drainage
3. prefer moist, aerated, finer textured soils with pH around
6.5
3. Arthropods (insects, arachnids, crustaceans)
1. ants, termites, beetles, grubs, centipedes
2. contribute to early breakdown of organic matter (reduces the size
of larger organic materials)
4. Mollusks (snails,slugs)

Soil Microorganisms (Soil Microbes)

- Soil organisms that requires a microscope to observe and study
1. Microfauna
1. Nematodes (threadworms, eelworms)
• Eukaryotic and multicellular
• Have a body size of 200 to 1000 µm
• Typically, slender, cylindrical and unsegmented
2. Protozoa (Amoeba)
• Less than 200 µm long
• Eukaryotic and unicellular
2. Microflora
1. Bacteria
• Simple, single-celled microbes, prokaryotic and most are
heterotrophic although there are many that derive energy
autotrophically from chemical reactions.
• most numerous microbes in the soil – 108 to 109 per gram of soil
• may pack up to 1,000 enzymes in their bodies (they are considered
micro bioreactors)
• “structurally simple but functionally complex”
• populations are dependent on food source and environment.
• Optimum moisture level for most plants are usually best for
bacteria
2. Actinomycetes
• A special group of bacteria
• They look like fungi (filamentous) and has spores (conidia), but
they are like bacteria because they are prokaryotic, and their walls
are like that of bacteria.
• 2nd most abundant organism in the soil (over 1 million / gm)
• decompose resistant organic compounds (cellulose, lignin and
chitin)
• like pH 6-7.5

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 54

 • some fix Nitrogen (Frankia)
• give soil its rich earthy smell
• some produce antibiotics such as Streptomycin and
Chloramphenicol (from Streptomyces)
3. Fungi
• no chlorophyll -- heterotrophic organisms (energy from organic
compounds)
• fungi are fewer in number than bacteria but make up the largest
biomass of any microbe in soils. A mass of hyphae is called
mycelium.
• Exists in a wide range of soil pH --- Molds (widest pH range)
• dominate at low pH due to reduced competition
• decompose cellulose, lignin’s and complex organic compounds
• Usually multicellular but may include unicellular organisms
(yeast)

Mycorrhizal fungi- “Fungus-Roots” symbiotic association. The

fungus colonizes plant roots in a symbiotic
relationship utilizing carbon from the plant while
benefitting the plants by increasing uptake of
phosphorus and possibly other nutrients and water.
Lichen- “Fungus-Algae” symbiotic association. The fungus
provides growth factors (water nutrients) to the
algae while the algae in return provide
photosynthates to the fungi.
4. Algae
1. contains chlorophyll and are photosynthetic. They are autotrophic
organisms
2. primary producers
3. live near the soil surface (because they need light)
4. found in moist to wet soils at or near a neutral pH.
5. May live in leaves of aquatic fern, azolla

Microbial Groups with representative size and number (top 10 cm of soil)

Population
density
Microbial Group Example Size (µm)
(organisms per
g soil)
Bacteria Pseudomonas 0.5 x 1.5 108-109
Actinomycetes Streptomyces 0.5 -2.0 107 -108
Fungi Mucor 8.0 105-106
Algae Chlorella 5 x 13 103 -106
Protozoa Euglena 15 x 50 103-105
Nematodes Pratylenchus 1,000 101-102
From: Sylvia et al., Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 55

 Distribution of microorganisms along a soil profile
Thousands of organisms per gram soil
Depth Aerobic Anaerobic Actinomycetes Fungi Algae
(cm) Bacteria Bacteria
3-8 7,800 1,950 2,080 119 25
20-25 1,800 379 245 50 5
35-40 472 98 49 14 <1
65-75 10 1 5 6 <1
135-145 1 <1 ND 3 ND
From: Mark Coyne, Soil Microbiology
Environmental Factors Affecting Microorganism Populations
1. Moisture Content: Moist soils around –Field Capacity is best for
microorganisms. Soil moisture conditions that are too dry or too wet
inhibit microbial activity.
2. Adequate Temperature Range: Activity of microorganisms is limited
below 5 degrees C
• Psychrophiles: -5 to 25 oC
• Mesophiles : 15- 40 oC
• Thermophiles: 40-70 oC
• Hyperthermophiles: at least above 60oC, usually at 80 – 100 oC
3. Adequate Carbon: Organic matter is a food source. Different organisms
use different types of organic matter
4. Adequate Soil pH: Different microorganisms work in specific pH ranges.
• Bacteria prefers near neutral pH and is adversely affected by acidic
conditions
• Fungi are more resistant to acidic conditions.
• How are microbes affected by pH?
1. Microbial enzymes can be denatured due to pH change
2. pH may affect the solubility of other chemicals --- which
may become toxic to microbes at high concentrations or
may be limiting at very low concentrations
5. Proper Competing Organisms: Microbes are particular to the types of
organisms that are around them. To be able to survive, they must be able
to compete or have a favorable association with the microbes around
them.
6. Aeration: The need of presence or absence of oxygen.
• aerobic – requires oxygen to survive
• anaerobic – can survive or survives better in the absence of oxygen

Beneficial Activities of Soil Organisms

1. Decomposition of organic materials
2. Nutrient transformation
3. Weathering reactions/ Soil formation
4. Treatment of wastes
5. Improve soil physical properties

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 56

Decomposition: microbially-mediated process whereby complex organic matter
is reduced to simpler ones.
1. This is driven by enzymatic reactions involving different soil
microorganisms. Decomposition is efficient under aerobic conditions.
CH2O + O2 ====> CO2 + CH2O + energy.
▪ Decomposition can still proceed under anaerobic
condition but is relatively less efficient than
decomposition under anaerobic conditions.
2. All stages of decomposition are present in soils.
- Rate of decomposition is largely determined by the composition
of the organic matter/organic residue. Organic residues with high
content of recalcitrant substances (such as lignin and chitin) and
has a wide C/N ratio are usually harder to decompose.
Nutrient Transformation
1. Microbes are important in biochemical processes involving the
transformation of nutrients. These transformation reactions may be of
agricultural or environmental importance.
2. Transformations that are agriculturally relevant:
Examples:
Nitrification - conversion of ammonium (NH4+) to nitrate (NO3-) by
two bacteria.
Two-step process

2 NH4+ + O2 ===> 2 NO2- + 2 H2O + 4 H+ + energy ------ done by

Nitrosomonas sp.

2NO2- + O2 ===> 2 NO3- + energy ------done by Nitrobacter sp.

Nitrogen Fixation – conversion of Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to
ammonia
N2 ===> NH3 ------ done by Rhizobium sp in nodules in roots of
legumes.

3. Transformations that are environmentally relevant.

Example:
Denitrification - conversion of nitrate (NO3-) to NO, N2O and
primarily to N2 (nitrogen gas) – done my denitrifiers/ denitrifying
microbes

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 57

 Weathering Reactions/ Soil Formation
1. Microorganisms produce acidic exudates which can contribute to
solubilization of the parent materials.
2. Cyanobacteria, algae and lichens are considered pioneer organisms in
soil formation because of their dual roles in acquiring carbon and
nitrogen from the atmosphere. Carbon and nitrogen are two essential
elements that are lacking in the soil parent material.

Treatment of Waste
1. Nitrate from septic systems, for example can be denitrified by
denitrifying organisms.
2. Industrial wastes such as PCE or TCE (can cause cancer) and
pesticides may be degraded via microbially-mediated reactions.

Improve Soil Physical Properties

1. Fungal hyphae may wrap soil particles encouraging the production of
aggregates
2. Mucilaginous exudates of some bacteria may serve as “glue” in
aggregate formation

Metabolic Classification of Microorganisms:

1. Based on Energy Source:
a) Phototrophic – microbes that use light as their primary source of
energy
b) Chemotrophic – microbes that use chemical compounds and
reactions as their source of energy

2. Based on Carbon Source:

a) Heterotrophs - microbes that obtain carbon from organic compounds
; most numerous type
b) Autotrophs: Obtains carbon (C) from by fixation of CO2

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 58

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Section 6.2 Application

Knowing the Biology of our Soil

Think as if you are the 1. What organisms comprise the soil
one in-charge of the macrofauna?
soybean farm 2. What organisms comprise the soil
microfauna? Soil microflora?
3. Familiarize the properties of each
Scenario: group of soil organisms
4. What is mycorrhiza? What are
The soybean farm needs to have a lichens?
fertilization program. As the one in 5. What is the relationship of
charge for the fertilization organism size to population
program, you are asked to density?
purchase the needed fertilizers 6. What is the general distribution of
(N,P,K). organisms with depth in a soil
profile?
11. Rank these fertilizers in terms
7. What are the factors affective
of the amount that the farm will
microbial growth and survival?
be needing (1 being the highest
amount and 3 the lowest). 8. What are the beneficial effects of
What is the main reason for soil microorganisms?
your ranking? 9. How do you classify soil microbes
according to their energy source?
According to their carbon source?
10. Define soil organisms?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 59

 Module 6 Soil Biology and Organic Matter

Lesson 2

Soil Organic Matter

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: Soil organic matter is one of the important
products of soil macro and microorganism activity.
Understand the nature,
properties and
Through decomposition, these dead plant and
importance of soil animal materials are converted to soil organic
organic matter and the compounds that makes up a healthy and fertile
environment
soil. In this lesson you will learn the nature,
Key Concepts
properties and function of the soil organic matter
and know its importance in maintaining good soil
a. Soil Organic Matter
b. Humus
health.
c. Decomposition
d. C/N ratio
……………………

Section 6.3

The darker the soil the better!

In this activity, we will get to know the black substance in

our soil.

Procedure
 Go out outside and get a clod from the upper 2
inches and from 4-6 inches of your soil
 Get approximately a handful of both soils
 Prepare two (2) empty 1-liter plastic bottled water
 Cut the upper part of the bottled water to
accommodate a mixture of the soil and half liter of
clear tap water
 Mix both soil and water putting each soil on the
different plastic bottles
 Continue mixing both mixture for 1 minute
 After mixing, let it settle for another minute

Analysis
 Based on your observation, which layer of the soil
has the darker material in the water?
 What could be the main reason for this difference?

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 60

Soil Organic Matter: are living or dead plant or animal material in soil. Ranges from
large undecomposed material to fine, highly decomposed material.
Humus: stable fraction of organic matter in the soil.
➢ complex organic materials that is resistant to further
decomposition.
Composition of SOM
1. Green tissue - 85 to 90% water and 10 to 15% dry matter.
2. Dry Matter
a) C, H. and O - 90%.
b) Contains all nutrients but important reservoir of N, P, K, S.
c) Rapidly decomposing materials - cellulose, starches, sugars,
amino acids and proteins.
d) Slowly decomposing materials - fats, oils, resins, and lignin.
e) C/N ratio – ratio of C to N in the plant residue (e.g. rice
straw, peanut shoots)

Decomposition: microbially-mediated process

Relation of C/N ratio in organic materials to decomposition and soil
N.
1. Wide ratio (> 30) - material low in N so microbes lack N and
decomposition is slow. If any soil N is present in the soil, microbes will
compete with plants for it.
• Have to apply additional N to hasten decomposition of wide
C/N material and prevent N deficiency on crop.
2. Intermediate ratio (15 to 30) - balanced N content. Meets microbes
needs and does not cause N deficiency.
3. Low ratio (< 15) e.g. legume residues- contains excess N and residues
is fast. Nitrogen will be released into the soil with decomposition.
Basis for legumes in rotations or green manure crops.

Function of Organic Matter in the Soil

1. Source of essential elements.
• Other than those provided by fertilizers, organic matter is the
major source of nitrogen in most soil systems.
• Amount and type of nutrients in organic materials depends on
the type of organic residues
2. Substrate of most soil organisms.
• Source of C and energy of most microorganism
(chemoheterotrophs).
3. Provides the distinct black color of soils that improve the soils ability to
absorb the sun’s heat energy
4. Improves soil physical properties

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 61

 •A good cementing agent that contributes to structure
development via aggregate formation and stabilization
• Improvements in structure contributes to improvement in soil
and water movement through the soil body
5. Contributes to CEC
• Exposed functional groups in organic materials (e.g., carboxyl
and amino groups) contribute to the net negative charge of the
soil, and hence to the CEC of the soil.
6. Good buffer against pH change
• Exposed functional groups may protonate or deprotonate in
response to a change the chemistry of the soil solution and thus
may serve as buffer against drastic change in soil pH.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section 6.4 Application

Knowing our Soil Organic Matter

Think like a scientist!
1. Discuss What is humus?
2. Explain What is the relationship
Question:
of decomposition rate to C/N
List down the possible ways ratio?
where soil organic matter 3. Discuss What are functions of
may be decreased or lost in organic matter in soils?
our agricultural soils
…………………………..…………………………………………………

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]

Soil Biology and Organic Matter| 62

 Module 7 Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management

Lesson 1
Essential Elements

Introduction

………………………………………………………..……………………………
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you
Soil fertility focuses on the ability of soil to supply
are expected to:
nutrients to plants in adequate amount and proportion.
Identify and understand the These nutrients are essential elements that drives plants
criteria of essentiality metabolism. As such, understanding the criteria of
essentiality would help to every soil nutritionist aspirant
Identify the essential
in widening their understanding why not all elements
elements, their available
forms, sources, importance, present in the soil cannot be utilize by the plants for its
………………………………………………

and functions. growth and development. Upon conclusion of your

journey in this lesson, you will know elements that are
either beneficial or essential to plants and the criteria of
Key Concepts
nutrient essentiality. Moreover, you will understand how
a. Essential Elements nutrients were taken by the plants and the sources of
b. Beneficial Elements nutrients in the soil.
c. Macronutrients
d. Micronutrients
e. Criteria of Nutrient
Essentiality

Section 7.1
Read Interpret Elements: Essential or Non-essential
In this activity, you need a periodic table.

Procedure

1. Prepare a periodic table.

2. Without reading some references, in your periodic table, select at least 16 elements that
you think essential to plants.
3. Think what are those considerations that your chosen elements will be considered
essential.
4. Write on a paper.
5. Upon finishing reading the reference, and knowing already the essential elements and
their criteria of essentiality, divide the A4 size bond paper into two (2) columns. In the
left side write your chosen elements and the criteria you thought. In the right side, write
all the essential elements and the criteria of essentiality.

Analysis
1. Compare and contrast your written criteria of essentiality to the criteria of essentiality
by Arnon and Stout.
2. Explain why we need to know the essential elements.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management| 82

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Essential Elements

 There are more than 100 chemical elements

known to man but only 16 (17 if Nickel is
included).
 By 1890, scientists had already established that the
elements N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe were required
Soil Horizon
by plants, and that their absence or low availability
resulted in either the death of the plant or very Beneficial nutrients
poor plant growth with accompanying visual
symptoms of growth abnormalities. Several elements other
 Between 1922 and 1954, additional elements were than the essential
nutrients have beneficial
determined to be essential, those elements being
functions in plants.
Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, and Cl.
Although not essential (as
 In 1939, two plant physiologists at the University the plant can live without
of California published their criteria for plant them), beneficial
nutrient element essentiality, criteria that are still nutrients can improve the
acknowledged today. Arnon and Stout (1939) growth of some crops in
established three criteria for essentiality: some respects.
o Omission of the element in question must
• Nickel (Ni); Sodium
result in abnormal growth, failure to complete
(Na); Cobalt (Co);
the life cycle, or premature death of the plant. Silicon (Si);
o The element must be specific and not Aluminum (Al)
replaceable by another.
o The element must exert its effect directly on
growth or metabolism and not some indirect
effect such as by antagonizing another
element present at a toxic level.

Plants require 16 essential elements for plant

growth.

These nutrients may be broken into two groups:

Note!
1. Macronutrients: present in plant body in large
amounts; >100 mg/kg (dry weight basis) or >100
ppm
• C, H, O: come from air and water The 13 elements are called
• N, P, K: primary macronutrients mineral nutrients because
• Ca, Mg, S: Secondary macronutrients they are taken up in mineral
(inorganic) forms.
2. Micronutrients: present in plant body in
relatively lesser amounts; <100 mg/kg (dry
weight basis) or <100 ppm.
• Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, B, Cl, Mo
• Needed by plants in relatively lesser amount
but performs vital functions in the plant
body.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management| 83

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Deficiency Symptoms

Deficiency symptoms usually show up as visual

signs in the plant.
Soil Horizon
 Whether the symptoms appear in new growth
Out of these 16 elements,
or older growth depends on the mobility of
carbon (C) and oxygen are
obtained from the gas
the nutrient in the plant.
CO2, and hydrogen (H) is
obtained from water 1. Mobile elements in Plants:
(H2O). • can be translocated within plants from
older to actively growing tissue.
The other 13 elements are • N, P, K, Mg
called mineral nutrients
• deficiency symptoms occur in the
because they are taken up
older growth
in mineral (inorganic)
forms.
2. Immobile elements in Plants:
Oxygen, C and H make up • not translocated within the plant.
95 percent of plant • Ca, S, B, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn
biomass, and the • deficiency symptoms occur in the new
remaining 5 percent is growth
made up by all other
elements.
Nutrient Uptake by Plants

Nutrients are supplied to the root surface in 3 ways:

1. Root Interception:
 roots move through soil and comes in
contact with the nutrient on colloids.
 generally, not very important because the
root only comes into contact with 1-2% of
the total soil volume.
2. Mass flow:
 nutrients move to the root with water.
 most important with nutrients that will
easily flow with the water. Nitrogen may be
taken up by mass flow.

3. Diffusion:
 concentration gradients are set up around
the root surfaces and the soil farther away.
In response to this gradient the nutrients
The amount of nutrients taken up by move towards the plant root. For most
plants is in this order: cations this is the most important form of
N> K> Ca >P> Mg> S>micronutrients
movement.
o for nutrients like P and K this is the
most important form of uptake.
o the addition of fertilizer will increase
the gradient and increase uptake.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management| 84

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Forms of nutrients taken up by the plant

Plant-available
Element
 plants will only take up a nutrient if it is in form
some ionic form.
N NH4+, NO3-
P H2PO4-, HPO4-2
K K+
Ca Ca +2
Sources of Essential Elements in the Soil Mg Mg+2
S SO4 -2
1. Organic matter Fe Fe +2
Most soil nutrients are contained in the soil Mn Mn +2
organic matter. To make these nutrients B H2BO3-
available the organic matter must be Cu Cu+2
decomposed. Zn Zn+2
Cl Cl-
2. Soil minerals (includes clay minerals) Mo MoO4-2
These are the nutrients that are in the parent
materials. These nutrients may become
available through weathering; however, this
is a very slow process. There are also
nutrients in the clay minerals. This includes
Mg and K that are in the 2:1 clay minerals.

3. Adsorbed nutrients.
These are the nutrients that are held on the
soil colloid. This is the major source of
nutrients for the plants and is the source that
is most easily controlled by man.

4. Others: rainfall, fertilizer application

Reflections Check Enumerate the essential elements and its available forms
Differentiate macronutrients and micronutrients
Discuss how plants absorb nutrients from the soil.
Discuss the different sources of elements in the soil.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management| 85

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Section 7.2 Application

Think like an Agriculturist!

Understand Soil Horizons
7. Explain why plants will only take up a 1. Soil Horizon
Compare and
nutrient if it is in some ionic form. contrast essential and beneficial
elements.
8. WRITING in Soil Science 2. Enumerate the criteria that has to be
met for an element to be considered
As an agriculturist, you are expected to essential.
provide technical aid to our local farmers in 3. Discuss the importance of knowing
terms of practical guide towards essential whether an element is mobile or
elements for plant nutrition. Supposing you immobile.
are to advice farmers in terms of plant 4. Discuss the role of the 16 essential
nutrition, what are the information you will elements.
be sharing to them. As you want the farmers 5. Explain the sources of essential
to be informed properly, you will create a elements.
brochure that enclosed the information
you want to share to them.

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and Classification.
John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Jones, B.J. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual, 2nd Edition. CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Group. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management| 86

 Module 7 Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management

Lesson 2
Essential Elements in Focus and its
Management

………………………………………………………….……………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
Knowing the sources and understanding the importance
are expected to:
and functions of essential elements would help to deeply
Know the sources, understand how to efficiently supply the elements to the
importance, functions of growing plant. Moreover, to address soil fertility issues in
essential elements the field, there are various methods of soil fertility
Evaluate the fertility status of
evaluation so that strategies for the improvement of soil
a certain soil condition fertility will be employed. You will also appreciate the
according to crop stand and function of some essential elements and will give an idea
give recommendations for its on the deficiency symptoms, a diagnostic approach for
improvement to crop appropriate management
productivity.
………………………………………

At the end of this lesson, you will learn how to evaluate the
Key Concepts fertility status of a certain soil condition according to crop
stand and will learn the basic of fertilizer calculation.
a. Nitrogen dynamics
b. Phosphorus dynamics
c. Potassium dynamics
d. Soil Fertility Evaluation
e. Fertilizer Calculation

Section 7.3

Look me in the Eye Discover Deficiency Symptoms

In this activity, you will select crops of your preference on your locality and evaluate whether it
shows deficiency symptoms.

Procedure

1. In your locality, observe the color and status of the leaves of the crops.
2. Record your observation by taking photos.
3. Visit [Link] and search the link
[Link] entitled “A beginners guide: Nutrient
Deficiency”, and watch it.
4. Upon finishing watching the video and observing the crops in your locality,
evaluate what deficiency did you observed and put it in a leaflet formatted
output.
Analysis
1. Explain why the plants shows deficiency symptoms?
2. Discuss what will happen to the plants if the deficiency of its nutrients will not be
corrected?
3. Explain Is deficiency symptoms helpful in crop production?

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 87

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Nutrient in Focus: Nitrogen

 Nitrogen is usually the element that limits

plant growth and used by plants in largest Soil Horizon
quantities.
 Nitrogen is not found in large amounts in the
soil except in the organic form; there is
70% of the air we breathe
essentially none in soil minerals.
is N2.
 The source for all nitrogen is the air.

Importance of N

• component of all proteins, enzymes, and

chlorophyll.
• required in largest amount by most plants.
• regulates the use of K, P etc.
• has quickest and most pronounced effect on
plants.
• very mobile (anion). o But remember plants can only use N in the
form of NO3 - or NH4+.
o Organic nitrogen becomes available as the
organic matter decays.
Sources of N
1. Legumes: forms symbiotic relationship with
Rhizobia sp. that fixes atmospheric N
2. Legume- Rhizobia Symbiosis - fix between 40 -
300 lbs N/hectare
3. Nonsymbiotic organisms: fix 10-20 lbs
N/hectare.
4. Plant residue: C/N ratio effects release of N.
Residues with narrow C/N ratio release more
plant-available N to the soil.
5. Animal residue (wastes): type of wastes
controls N amount.
6. Rain and Snow: electrical discharges from
lighting generate heat that cause atmospheric
O2 to react with N to form several different N
oxides. These are brought to the soil by snow
and rain at a rate of at least 5 lb/Acre/year.
7. Industrial Wastes: Should be used with caution
as the waste may contain other harmful Nodulation in legumes
Excerpt from: [Link]
substances such as heavy metals. news-events/news/nodulation-legumes
8. Fertilizers

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 88

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Plant N
Decomposition Symbiotic N-
N Uptake Fixation

Ammonification Nitrification Denitrification

Soil NH4+ NO3- N2
organic N
Immobilization
Non- Symbiotic
Decomposition N-Fixation

Microbial
N

Nitrogen Cycle

Soil Horizon
1. Plant Uptake
2. Immobilization
Factors affecting • conversion of mineral N (nitrate and
nitrification ammonium) to the organic form
a. NH4+ must be • N is not available to plants in the organic
present form
b. Aeration: nitrification 3. Exchangeable NH4+
requires O2 • Soil organic matter, manure, etc. is broken
Temperature: down into proteins, amino acids, and
nitrification occurs amines. This material is converted, by
only above freezing specific bacteria, to NH4+. This is
and the rate increases ammonification.
up to about 85oF.
4. Nitrification
c. Moisture: nitrifying
bacteria are active in • microbial oxidation of ammonium to NO3-
moist soils but occurs under aerobic conditions. This
inactive in produces hydrogen ions and the anion form
waterlogged soils of N which is more subject to leaching
d. Neutral pH: 5. Denitrification
nitrification rates are • reduction of NO3 to N2, NO, and N2O
low in acid soils. This • gaseous loss of N from soils occurs under
is due to bacteria
reducing conditions
preferring more
neutral pH.
• facultative anaerobic
e. C:N ratio • wet anaerobic reducing condition; like to
have a large amount of plant residue
available.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 89

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Denitrification
• reduction of NO3 to N2, NO, and N2O
• gaseous loss of N from soils occurs under
reducing conditions
• facultative anaerobic
• wet anaerobic reducing condition; like to have Soil Horizon
a large amount of plant residue available.
7. Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen fixation is
mediated by the bacteria
• conversion of atmospheric N2 in cells living symbiotically in the
• occurs under aerobic conditions nodules of legumes
• represents only major input of N to many soils (Rhizobium sp.).
• Symbiotic fixation by Rhizobium Nitrification is a two-
• Non-symbiotic by free living organisms’ process mediated by the
bacteria, blue green algae two (2) bacteria:
8. Volatilization 1. Nitrosomonas sp.
• Loss of nitrogen as gaseous ammonia (NH3) 2. Nitrobacter sp.
• Ammonium applied to soils above ph 7. Loss of
N as a gas can occur because of surface
application of ammonium.
9. Mineralization/Ammonification
• conversion of organic N to mineral form NH4+
• heterogeneous organisms release NH4+
• Brief review of the C:N ratio idea
o At any given time no more than 1-2% of
the total amount of N in the residue is
available to the plant.
o Only about 2-3% of the immobilized N is
mineralized each year

Nutrient in Focus: Phosphorus

Importance of P
 component of:
o DNA and RNA
o ADP and ATP Phosphorus is
o role in plant maturation - flowering, fruiting, important in "energy
root development, straw strength storage and transfer"
o The element P is in every living cell, both at the cellular level.
plant and animal. The light energy captured
by photosynthesis would not support any of
the necessary plant functions if compounds
containing P were not present.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 90

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Crop Demands
 Only N and K (and sometimes Ca) are taken up in larger amounts by the plants.
 P is required for N fixation to take place. The microbes in the system require
that some P be present.

Forms of P in soil

 Mineral P (mainly apatite mineral) – form of P-containing mineral that is being

mined
 Organic P – about 30-50% of total P in soils. It may occur as phytate, nucleic
acids and phospholipids
 Solution P – inorganic forms of P such as PO43-, HPO42- and H2PO4- and
soluble organic forms of P.

Plant Uptake

 plants take up P from soil water. Because only small amounts of P are found in
the soil water at any one time, the P must be constantly replenished.
 soil organic matter contains P. As with other nutrients, the organic matter must
first be broken down before the plant can use the P.

P Fixation

 formation of "fixed" or unavailable P compounds

o By Fe, Al, (acid conditions): FePO4, Al (PO4), MnPO4
o By clays: Fe and Al associated with clay
 Enough P must be added to overcome the fixation capacity and the plant needs.

Plants

P in P-containing Uptake
Weathering
Minerals
Mineralization Decomposition
P in Plant and
Solution P Organic P animal
Residues
Immobilization
P fixed to Soil
Sorption/ Immobilization
Minerals desorption
Microbial
Biomass

The Phosphorus Cycle

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 91

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Nutrient in Focus: Potassium

 Among cations, K+ is absorbed by plants in the

largest amount.
 The four important forms of K in soil are:
o mineral K
o non-exchangeable K, or K fixed in
between clay plates
o exchangeable K
o K present in the soil solution.
 The abundance of different K fractions is usually
as follows: 90–98 percent of total K is in mineral
form, which is relatively (but not ultimately)
inaccessible to a growing crop; 1–10 percent of
total K is in the non-exchangeable (fixed) form,
which is slowly available; and 1–2 percent of
total K is in the exchangeable and water-soluble
forms.
 K dynamics are determined by the rate of K
exchange from the clay and organic matter
surfaces and the rate of release from soil
minerals.
 The cation K+ is largely held on to the exchange
complex as an exchangeable cation and a small
amount is present in a freely mobile form in the

The potassium cycle in the soil-plant animal system

Excerpt from: Syers, 1998. Soil and plant potassium in agriculture

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 92

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Evaluation of Soil Fertility Status

Methods of Assessing Soil Fertility Status:

Soil Horizon
1. Biological Test
Definition: 2. Evaluation of Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
3. Plant Tissue Analysis
Soil Fertility: The status 4. Soil Analysis
of the soil with respect
to the amount and
availability to plants the Biological Test
elements necessary for  this involves the planting of the crop in the
growth. soil being evaluated
Soil Productivity:  this could either be:
capability of a soil for o pot experiment
producing plants under a o field fertilizer experiment
specified system of  growth and yield performance of the crop has
management to be monitored and compared with the
expected growth and yield of the variety
being used.
 The soil would be considered fertile if the
performance of the test plants is comparable
or better than the optimum growth and yield
expected of the particular variety
used/planted.
 The plants may also be applied with various
rates of fertilizer – providing some
information on what and how much
nutrients have to be applied plant for
optimum plant growth

Pot experiment sample

Excerpt from: [Link] Advantage:
research-damien-lenglet/
1. The performance on the crop/plant
grown on the soil being evaluated is a
definitive indication of whether the
soil can support the growth of the
crop/plant or not.

Disadvantage:
1. Time-consuming
2. Expensive
3. By the time you do the actual wide
Field fertilizer trial scale growing of the crop, the fertility
Excerpt from: [Link]
publications /eifc-240 status may already have changed.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 93

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Evaluation of Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

 Plants deficient in one or more essential

nutrients become “sick” and exhibit leaf colors
and growth disorders that are indicative of the Soil Horizon
deficiency.
 Five general types of nutrient deficiency
symptoms Symptom –
1. Chlorosis - yellowing due to reduction observable physical
in chlorophyll traits manifested by
2. Uniform or interveinal the crop due to a
3. Necrosis- death of plant tissue deficiency of an
4. Stunting with either normal or dark essential nutrient.
green color or yellowing
5. Abnormal coloration- Anthocyanin
accumulation resulting in reddish color
6. Lack of new growth or terminal growth
resulting in rosetting

Advantages
1. rapid
2. does not require expensive or elaborate
equipment
3. can be used as a supplement to other
diagnostic techniques

Disadvantages/Problems:

1. Visual symptom may be caused by

deficiency of several nutrients.
2. Deficiency of one nutrient may be related
to an excessive quantity of another.
3. Other plant stresses (diseases, insects,
herbicide damage, etc.) can be difficult to
distinguish from nutrient deficiencies.
4. Visual symptoms may be caused by more
than one factor.
5. Nutrient deficiency symptoms appear too Sample Deficiency Chart of
late to correct the deficiency without yield Essential Nutrients
loss. Excerpt from: [Link]
com/ nutrient -deficiencies/
6. Nutrient toxicities (even some non-
nutrients like Al) can produce visual
symptoms similar to nutrient deficiencies.
For example, Mn toxicity symptoms are
similar to Fe deficiency. Al toxicity looks
like Ca deficiency

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 94

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Plant Tissue Analysis

 Sampling and analysis of plant parts for

certain essential elements
 This assumes that the nutrient concentration
in the tissue samples of plants are indicative
the nutritional status of the soil.
 The sap from the fresh plant samples could be
analyzed for some nutrients (colorimetric
methods).
 Shoots/ leaves/roots may also be collected,
Corn before tasseling. Collect dried and ground. The ground samples are
the first fully developed leaves then analyzed for the essential elements of
from the top of 15-20 plants. If interest.
the plant is less than 12 inches  Key features involve:
tall, collect all of the above- o Sampling
ground portion. o Sample Preparation
o Analysis
o Interpretation

Advantages

1. Standardized equipment or methods of

analysis are used
2. Serves as an option to monitor the fertility of
the soil while the plant is already growing

Disadvantages/Problems
1. Plants are already growing, and the detection
of some deficiency may already be too late.
2. May be difficult to distinguish whether the
lack of nutrient in tissue is due a true nutrient
deficiency or due to some soil physical
stresses (e.g. roots can’t penetrate through a
hard pan).
Corn from tasseling to silking. 3. Cannot distinguish whether the soil may
Collect the leaves below and actually have some nutrients and may just
opposite from the ear of 15-20 need some amendments for the said nutrients
plants. can be made available.
4. May be expensive (depending on the extent
and number of analysis that needs to be run).
Sample Plant Analysis 5. Nutrient content in the tissue may vary
Pictorial Sampling Guide depending on which plant part is sampled.
for Corn
Excerpt from:
[Link]

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 95

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Soil Analysis
 Soil testing is the most widely used research
tool for making balanced and profit
maximizing fertilizer recommendations,
particularly for field crops.
 Soil testing can be defined as an acceptably
accurate and rapid soil chemical analysis for
assessing available nutrient status for
making fertilizer recommendations.
 Soil testing as a diagnostic tool is useful only
when the interpretation of test results is
based on correlation with crop response and
economic considerations to arrive at
practically usable fertilizer
recommendations for a given soil–crop
situation.
 It may be repeated every 3–4 years, BUT for
banana plantations, it is done yearly.
 Soil samples are collected from an area, air-
dried, pulverized, and sieved, and submitted
to an accredited laboratory for soil analysis.
 Extra care has to be exercised when soil
samples are being sampled.

Advantages
1. The soil itself is being analyzed
2. Standardized methods/equipment are being
used.
3. Provides some idea on the fertility of the soil
before the crop is planted. This aids in
deciding what plants to grow, how to
manage it and whether there is a need to
make amendments such as lime prior to
planting.

Disadvantages/Problems:
1. Time-consuming
2. Expensive and requires specialized
equipment.
3. Accuracy of results depends largely on the
accuracy in sampling.

Proper way of sampling

Excerpt from: PCAARRD, 2006. The Philippine
recommends for soil fertility management

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 96

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Improvement/Management of Soil Fertility
Soil Horizon

 Soil fertility may be improved/maintained by:

Fertilizer Computation: Practice 1. Fertilizer Application
2. Lime Application
Soil analytical laboratories often
provide a recommended fertilizer
3. Good soil and crop management practices
application amount based on soil test
results. However, producers may alter 1. Fertilizer Application
this amount depending on fertilizer • Fertilizers: Any organic or inorganic
costs, changes in yield potential, material of natural or synthetic origin
management intensity, or due to added to the soil to supply certain
different philosophies (sufficiency or nutrients essential to the growth of plants
maintenance/build).
• Amount of fertilizer that needs to be
Example: applied depends on:
o Crop need
How many kg of urea, solophos and o Inherent fertility of the soil
muriate of potash needed to satisfy o Soil properties: soil texture, CEC,
the RR of 100-20-50 per hectare? nutrient sorption capacity
The three numbers mentioned
represents the N-P-K needed to 2. Lime application
satisfy the required amount. • Liming material is applied to raise the pH
• Urea: 46-0-0 of an acidic soil to a pH level that:
• Solophos: 0-20-0 o favors the availability of most essential
• Muriate of Potash: 0-0-60 nutrients and prevents the
development of some nutrient
FR-Fertilizer Required toxicities.
FG-Fertilizer Grade o favors the activity of microorganism
RR-Recommended Rate o favors the healthy growth of plant
roots
For Urea
FR = RR X 100 3. Good Soil and Crop Management Practices
FG
= 100 X 100 • crop rotation = growing different plants in
46 succession (include a legume crop)
= 217.39 kg of Urea • cover cropping = grown to cover soil
• contour farming = tillage practice applied
For Solophos across the slope/contour
FR = RR X 100 • strip cropping = growing alternate
FG crops/strips of clean cultivates
= 20 X 100 • organic matter amendment = addition of
20 supplemental organic residues
= 100 kg of Solophos • green manuring = incorporation of plant
materials while still green
For MOP
FR = RR X 100
FG
= 50 X 100
60
= 83.33 kg of MOP

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Section 7.4 Application

Think like an Agriculturist!

Understand Soil Horizons
Soil Horizon
6. Explain in your own perspective What is 1. Discuss Why is
the ideal method of soil fertility nitrogen, phosphorus, and
evaluation? potassium an important element?
2. Explain Why N, P, and K are
considered primary
7. Math in Soil Science macronutrients?
3. Differentiate soil fertility from soil
You learned in this module the techniques
productivity?
in diagnosing the fertility status of a certain
4. Discuss What are the methods of
area. Mr. Sue Wel has 10-hectare banana
assessing soil fertility? Under what
farm. He approached you as a soil fertility
condition/s would a particular
expert to survey the soil status of his farm.
method be appropriate?
Upon walking around the farm, you
5. Explain What are the different
observed the older leaves have purple
methods of improving soil fertility?
coloration on most of the plants,
particularly on the undersides. In this
situation, you already have an idea that
there is something lacking with the
nutrition. To make conclusive with your References
initial findings, you suggested to Mr. Sue
Wel that it is much better to have a soil Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The
analysis to have a more accurate
Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th
quantitative recommendation. After
edition. Pearson Education Limited,
analyzing the soil, you recommended a 180-
70-300 N-P-K that should be applied in his Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20
area per hectare for the whole year. It is 2JE, England, 1105 pp.
understood that this rate was the deficit
amount of N-P-K for the requirement of Jones, B.J. Plant Nutrition and Soil
banana. Fertility Manual, 2nd Edition. CRC
Press Taylor and Francis Group. 6000
Available fertilizer: Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300.
Diammonium phosphate (18-46-0)
Urea (46-0-0)
Muriate of Potash (0-0-60) Recommended Website to Explore
With these available fertilizers, how many
[Link]; [Link];
kg in each of them should Mr. Sue Wel
prepared to satisfy the Recommended rate? [Link]
Show your step-by-step solution.

Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management | 98

Module 8 Soil Conservation and Management

Lesson 1

Soil Erosion

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you are
expected to: As human population increases dramatically,
there is a need to increase food production.
Distinguish between natural
and accelerated erosion With this, there is a need to increase
Enumerate and understand
production in each parcel of lands while other
erosion control measures expand production, thereby cultivating lands
Explain how rainfall, slope, that are suitable for agricultural production.
management practices, and These intense pressures lead to the
cropping pattern affects soil
loss.
degradation of soil resources, exacerbated as
well with the natural and human induced
Key Concepts erosion. Thus, there is a need to understand
a. Soil Erosion soil erosion so that appropriate management
b. Water Erosion will be applied, and soil will be sustainably
…………………………

c. Splash Erosion utilized.

d. Sheet Erosion
e. Rill and Gully Erosion
f. Stream Erosion
g. Erosion Control Measures

Section 8.1
Observe the surroundings Soil Erosion
In this activity, you will learn soil erosion and the factors that
influence the process. Moreover, you will have an idea on how soil
erosion can be effectively managed.

Procedure
 Observe the set-up.
 When water was drained, you will observe the color of the
water.
 After observation, do an internet scavenging on soil
erosion.

Analysis
 Explain why the drained water in the set-up have different
color.
Soil Erosion Experiment
 Discuss the implication that the set-up portrays. Excerpt from:
 Discuss why soil erosion matters and what do you think [Link]
the possible management to mitigate and or control soil
erosion.

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Soil Erosion

Erosion – the (1) detachment and (2) movement of

soil or rock by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
 Two types:
Erosion in Focus:
1. Natural Erosion: wearing away of the
Erosion by Water
earth’s surface by water, ice, or other
natural agents under natural Two steps are
environmental conditions. recognized in
2. Accelerated Erosion: erosion that is much accelerated erosion:
more rapid than normal, natural, geological 1. Detachment
erosion. freeze/thaw,
wet/dry, flowing
water, wind,
Types of Water Erosion (in bare terrain) raindrops, human
activity
1. Splash Erosion
 Due the force of raindrops falling on bare 2. Transportation
or sparsely vegetated surfaces. floating, rolling,
 The particles are detached by the force of dragging,
falling raindrops. splashing, human
 The soil rises into the air and maybe activity, etc.
moved by gravity or wind or water down-
slope. Power of Raindrops
Raindrops impact has 3
2. Sheet Erosion important effects:
 Soil particles are easily transported in a 1. It detaches soil -
thin layer or sheet by flowing water. force of falling
water.
3. Rill and Gully Erosion 2. Beatings tend to
 If the sheet runoff is allowed to concentrate destroy
and gain velocity or energy, it will cut rills granulation at
and gullies as it detaches more soil surface
particles. 3. Crusting leads to
more runoff
4. Stream Erosion
 Erosion that occurs along the banks of
streams. Increased erosion occurs when
level of runoff is increased to the river or
stream.

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Causes of High Erosion Rates in the Philippines
 Steep Slopes (3/4 of land area is hilly to mountainous)
 Highly erodible soils
 High rainfall erosivity (high intensity and long duration Rainfall
 Poor vegetative cover in cultivated lands

On - Site Effects of Soil Erosion

a. Loss of fertile topsoil thus decline in nutrient and water supply
b. Gully formation and exposure of unproductive subsoil

Off-site Effects
a. Siltation of dams, lakes, rivers etc.
b. Floods, soil, and water pollution

Principles in Soil Conservation

1. Reduction of run off velocity
2. Increase in water infiltration and water holding capacity
3. Reduction of raindrop impact
4. Increase in soil porosity and aggregation

Erosion Control Measures:

Control measures are designed to:
a. controlling /limiting detachment
b. limiting transport

Vegetative Control
• use strip crops
• soil mulches & no-tillage techniques
• improve soil structure by adding organic matter
• plant water breaks/ buffer strips
• plant annual grasses on construction sites

Mechanical Control
• use contour tillage
• construct terraces
• to remove water across rather than down the slope
• use sediment traps in catchment basins
• sedimentation ponds to entrap sediments at the head of major
drainage ways

Soil Conservation and Management| 110

 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Section 8.2 Application

Understanding Soil Erosion

1. Discuss the factors that
Think like a scientist!
influence soil erosion.
2. Explain the effects of soil
erosion.
6. Explain the process of soil 3. Compare and contrast
erosion natural and human-induced
7. You are tasked to make a soil soil erosion.
conservation management 4. Explain the causes of high
plan for a farm to be erosion rates in the
established in an upland with Philippines.
rolling topography, what will
be in the plan?

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition.
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105
pp.

Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines.
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.

Recommended Website to Explore

[Link]; [Link]; [Link]

Soil Conservation and Management| 111

 Module 9 Soil Taxonomy and Land Use Planning

Lesson 1

Soil Classification and Land Use

……………………………………………………………………………………………
Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: According to Brady and Weil (2017), we classify things
to make sense of our world. As such in soil, this is
Discuss the importance of essential to foster global communications about soils
soil classification
among soil scientists and all people concerned with the
Differentiate the 12 soil management of land and the conservation of the soil
orders resource. Moreso, as we organize our knowledge
Discuss land use planning towards soil, we are getting the best way how we can
and its features use soils of the present and future generation. In this
lesson, you will learn how soils are classified as natural
Key Concepts bodies based on their profile characteristics, not merely
a. Soil Taxonomy
based on their suitability for a particular use. As this will
b. Soil Order be the last module, make the best of your journey in
c. Land Use Planning understanding the dirt of life.
……………………

Section 9.1 Activity

Learning Basics Classification of Soils

Apply concepts. Soils are classified based on their profile

characteristics using a taxonomic nomenclature system such as the
USDA Soil Taxonomy and FAO-UNESCO World Reference Base System.

Procedure
 Do a research works on the USDA Soil Taxonomy and FAO-
UNESCO World Reference Base System.
 Create a graphic organizer on the groupings of soils for both
systems.
 Using the created graphic organizer, establish the relationship
of the two system of soil classification.

Analysis
 Discuss the importance of classifying soils.
 Explain the relationship of soil classification and appropriate
land use.

Soil Taxonomy and Land Use Planning| 99

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Classification

 The categorization of soils into groups at

varying levels of generalization according to
their physical, mineralogical, and chemical
properties. Soil Horizon

Soil Taxonomy Categories from highest to

lowest levels of generalization
 the system of classification developed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Survey Order 12
Staff
Suborder 66
 provides a hierarchical grouping of natural soil
bodies. Great Group 320
 the system is based on soil properties that can be
Subgroup 1,400
objectively observed or measured, rather than
on presumed mechanisms of soil formation. Family 8,000
Series 19,000
Structure of the Soil Taxonomic System

 Hierarchical system of 6 categories

Basic Concept of Each Taxonomic Category

Category Nature of Criteria for Differentiating

major soil forming processes; diagnostic horizons
Order
genetic similarity; moisture regime, organic matter composition, parent
Suborder material effects

Great Group diagnostic layers, base status, horizon expression, clay activity
central concept of Great Group (Typic) or intergrades or extragrades
Subgroup
properties important for soil use (texture, mineralogy, temperature)
Family
kind and arrangement of horizons, specific chemical mineralogical
Series
properties of horizons

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Orders and their Formative Elements
Formative
Order Mnemonicon Derivation
Element
Gelisol el gelifluction L. gelare, freeze
Histisol ist histology Gr. histos, tissue
Spodosol od Podzol; odd Gr. spodos,wood ashes
Andisol and Ando Sp. Andes
Oxisol ox oxide Fr. oxide
Vertisol ert invert L. verto, turn
Aridisol id arid L. aridos, dry
Ultisol ult ultimate L. ultimus, last
Mollisol oll mollify L. mollis, soft
Alfisol alf Pedalfer
Inceptisol ept inception L. inceptum, beginning
Entisol ent recent

Description of Soil Orders

Soil Horizon
1. Gelisols
 Soils that commonly have a dark organic
Guide in
surface layer and mineral layers
remembering the 12
Soil Orders: underlain by permafrost. These soils are
commonly in the tundra regions of
Alaska.
Gee How Soils Are
Outstanding, 2. Histosols
Versatile And Useful
 Organic Soils
Material Although
Increasingly 3. Spodosols
Exploited  Light colored acid forest, often
coniferous, soils of cool humid regions as
in northeast United States.

4. Andisols
 Soils derived from volcanic materials.

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
5. Oxisols
 Highly weathered tropical soils. Has
subsurface horizon low in weatherable
minerals but high in aluminum or
sesquioxide clays.

6. Vertisols
 High in swelling clays. When dry, large deep
cracks form that surface soil falls into, mixing
the soil.

7. Aridisols
 Arid soils common to western United States,
often alkaline with salted horizons

8. Ultisols
 Highly weathered soils of warm climates, low
base, often leached, acid, and infertile. –
most common in the Philippines

9. Mollisols
 Prairie soils of the Great Plains. Dark, thick,
good structure, high base A horizon.

10. Alfisols
 Forest soils of cool moist climates, light
colored, slightly to moderately acid with
illuvial layer high in silicate clays.

11. Inceptisols
 Young soils, with only those horizons that
form quickly.

12. Entisols
 Very young soils in new parent materials or
Sample classification
where alluvial deposition or erosion limits
profile development (slopes). of soil using USDA
Soil Taxonomy

Cecil Series: Official Description: Fine, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kanhapludults

Order: Ultisol
Suborder: Udult
Great Group: Kanhapludult
Subgroup: Typic Kanhapludult
Family: Fine, Kaolinitic, Thermic
Series: Cecil

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources
Soil Horizon
 the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS)
system for soil correlation
WRB Architecture

The WRB comprises Reference Soil Groups

two levels of
categorical detail:
1. Soil with thick organic layers – Histosols
2. Soil with strong human influence
1. the First Level
having 32 a. with long and intensive agricultural use –
Reference Soil Anthrosols
Groups (RSGs), b. containing significant amount of artefacts –
and Technosols
2. the Second 3. Soils with limitations to root growth
Level, consisting e. permafrost-affected – Cryosols
of the name of f. thin or with many coarse fragments –
the RSG Leptosols
combined with a g. with a high content of exchangeable sodium
set of principal – Solonetz
and h. alternating wet-dry conditions, shrink-swell
supplementary
clays – Vertisols
qualifiers.
i. high concentration of soluble salts –
Solonchaks
4. Soils distinguished by Fe/Al chemistry
a. groundwater-affected, underwater and in
tidal areas – Gleysols
b. allophanes or Al-humus complexes –
Andosols
c. subsoil accumulation of humus and/or
oxides – Podzols
d. accumulation and redistribution of Fe –
Plinthosols
e. low-activity clay, P fixation, many Fe oxides,
strongly structured – Nitisols
f. dominance of kaolinite and oxides –
Ferralsols
g. stagnating water, abrupt textural difference
– Planosols
h. stagnating water, structural difference,
and/or moderate textural difference –
Stagnosols

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
5. Pronounced accumulation of organic matter in the
mineral topsoil
a. very dark topsoil, secondary carbonates –
Chernozems
b. dark topsoil, secondary carbonates –
Kastanozems
c. dark topsoil, no secondary carbonates (unless
very deep), high base status – Phaeozems
d. dark topsoil, low base status – Umbrisols
6. Accumulation of moderately soluble salts or non-
saline substances
a. accumulation of, and cementation by,
secondary silica – Durisols
b. accumulation of secondary gypsum –
Gypsisols
c. accumulation of secondary carbonates –
Calcisols
7. Soils with clay-enriched subsoil
a. interfingering of course-textured, lighter
coloured material into a finer-textured,
stronger coloured layer – Retisols
b. low-activity clays, low base status – Acrisols Horizon
Soil
c. low-activity clays, high base status – Lixisols
d. high-activity clays, low base status – Alisols
e. high-activity clays, high base status – Luvisols  The WRB is a
8. Soils with little or no profile differentiation comprehensive
a. Moderately developed - Cambisols classification system
b. Sandy – Arenosols that enables
c. Stratified fluviatile, marine, and lacustrine accommodation of
sediments – Fluvisols national soil
d. No significant profile development – Regosols classification
systems.

 The term Reference

Base is connotative
of the common
denominator function
of the WRB: its units
(RSGs) have sufficient
width to facilitate
harmonization and
correlation with
existing national
systems.

Soil Taxonomy and Land Use Planning| 104

 Basic of Land Use Planning

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Land

Dig your mind!  refers to a specific area of the earth’s surface that
is characterized by its soil, climatic, geologic,
topographic, hydrologic, floral, and faunal
 There are three resources, as well as by the kinds of human
sources of activities that take place on it.
information that
land evaluation Land Use
needs.  refers to those biological and technological
 These are land, activities that manage and improve land
land use and resources for economic and social purposes.
economics.
Land Evaluation
 refers to an assessment of the properties of the
several resources that characterize land as they
bear on the requirements of one or more specific
land uses.
 it is undertaken both to assess the performance
of land under specified uses and to communicate
information about alternative uses of the same
tract of land.

Philippine Land Capability Classification System

 The system recognizes that the classification of
land should be based on its natural
characteristics rather than upon the skill of the
individual operating it or upon prevailing
economic conditions.
 The classes of land according to use capability
Soil Horizon are determined by considering the soil
conditions:
o physical, chemical, and biological
The fundamental o slope, kind, and degree of erosion,
purpose of land o and certain other environmental features
evaluation is to such as climate and drainage
predict the
consequences of
chance

Soil Taxonomy and Land Use Planning| 105

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Structure of the Philippine Land Capability
Classification System

 Land suitable for cultivation

o Class A – good land that can be cultivated
safely and extensively with ordinary
good farming practices.
o Class B – good land that can be cultivated
safely using easily applied conservation
practices.
o Class C – moderately good land that can
be used regularly for cultivated crops in
a good rotation but needs intensive
conservation treatment.
o Class D – fairly good land that is best
suited for pasture but can be cultivated
to crops in a good rotation but needs
intensive conservation treatment.

 Land suitable for pasture and forest

o Class L – land is flat but is too wet or
stony and is suited for pasture or
forestry.
o Class M – land is too steep, eroded, or
shallow for cultivation but is suited for
grazing, or forestry if well managed.
o Class N – land is very steep, eroded,
rough, shallow, or dry. Good only for
forestry or grazing if handled properly.

 Lands suitable for wildlife

o Class X – land is level but wet moist of
the time and cannot be economically
drained. Good for farm pond or
recreation.
o Class Y – land is too steep, eroded, barren
and rugged and should be reserved only
for wildlife or recreation.

Reflections Check Compare and contrast the 12 soil orders.

Differentiate the 32 reference soil groups.
Discuss land use planning, its significance, and limitation.

Soil Taxonomy and Land Use Planning| 106

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Section 9.2 Application

Think like an Artist!

Understand Soil Taxonomy and
Land Use
5. Explain What is the most common
soil order in the Philippines? 1. Discuss the importance of
having a soil classification
6. Arts in Soil Science system.
2. Discuss the 12 soil orders.
Make an Artwork Exhibit that
showcase the characteristics and 3. Explain the different taxonomic
management of any soil orders. categories of soil classification
4. Briefly discuss the reference
soil groups.

References

Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.

Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and Classification.
John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 pp.

IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015
International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps.
World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.

Lal, Rattan. 2017. Encyclopedia of Soil Science. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken
Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742. 2795 pp.

Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. United States Department of Agriculture Natural
Resources Conservation Service. 372 pp.

Soil Taxonomy and Land Use Planning| 107