1.

Need for Classification

There are 118 known elements. Studying the physical and chemical properties of each element individually is extremely difficult. Classification helps in:
Grouping elements with similar properties together
Making the study systematic
Predicting properties of unknown or newly discovered elements
Understanding relationships between different elements
2. Historical Development (Detailed)
Dobereiner’s Triads (1829) Johann Dobereiner arranged elements with similar properties in groups of three (triads). In a triad, the atomic mass of the middle element is roughly the average of the other two. Examples:
Li (6.9), Na (23), K (39)
Ca (40), Sr (87.6), Ba (137.3)
Cl (35.5), Br (79.9), I (126.9)
Limitation: Only a few elements could be arranged in this way. Most elements did not fit into triads.
Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865) John Newlands arranged elements in increasing order of atomic mass. He found that every eighth element had properties similar to the first (like musical octaves). Limitation: Worked well only up to calcium. Failed for heavier elements. Discovery of noble gases completely disturbed the arrangement.
Lothar Meyer He plotted atomic volume against atomic mass. Elements with similar properties appeared at similar positions on the curve, showing periodicity.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table (1869) Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses.
He arranged 63 known elements in order of increasing atomic mass and placed similar elements in the same group. He left gaps for undiscovered elements and successfully predicted their properties (Eka-aluminium = Gallium, Eka-silicon = Germanium, Eka-boron = Scandium).
Merits:
Systematic classification
Prediction of new elements and their properties
Corrected atomic masses of some elements
Demerits:
Some elements were placed in wrong order of atomic mass (Ar–K, Co–Ni, Te–I)
Position of isotopes was not clear
Hydrogen had no fixed position
Lanthanoids and actinoids could not be properly placed
3. Modern Periodic Law
In 1913, Henry Moseley studied the frequency of X-rays emitted by elements and found that atomic number is more fundamental than atomic mass.
Modern Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
This law resolved almost all anomalies of Mendeleev’s table.
4. Structure of the Modern Periodic Table
7 horizontal rows → Periods
18 vertical columns → Groups (IUPAC numbering 1–18)
Elements arranged strictly according to increasing atomic number
Length of Periods:
Period 1: 2 elements (1s)
Period 2: 8 elements (2s + 2p)
Period 3: 8 elements (3s + 3p)
Period 4: 18 elements (4s + 3d + 4p)
Period 5: 18 elements (5s + 4d + 5p)
Period 6: 32 elements (6s + 4f + 5d + 6p)
Period 7: 32 elements (7s + 5f + 6d + 7p)
5. Classification into s, p, d and f Blocks
Block Groups Last electron entersGeneral Configuration Characteristics
s-block 1&2 s-orbital ns¹ or ns² Soft, highly reactive metals
p-block 13–18 p-orbital ns² np¹ to ns² np⁶ Includes metals, non-metals, metalloids & noble gases
d-block 3–12 d-orbital (n–1)d¹–¹⁰ ns⁰–² Transition metals (variable oxidation states, coloured ions, catalytic properties)
f-block — f-orbital (n–2)f¹–¹⁴ Inner transition elements (Lanthanoids & Actinoids)
s + p block = Representative (Main group) elements
d-block = Transition elements
f-block = Inner transition elements
6. Detailed Periodic Trends
Atomic Radius / Covalent Radius
Across a period → Decreases Reason: Nuclear charge increases, number of shells remains same → effective nuclear charge (Z_eff) increases → electrons pulled closer.
Down a group → Increases Reason: New electron shells are added. Increase in shielding effect outweighs increase in nuclear charge.
Ionic Radius
Cation < Parent atom (loss of electron(s) increases Z_eff)
Anion > Parent atom (gain of electron(s) increases repulsion)
For isoelectronic species: Higher nuclear charge → smaller size Example: N³⁻ > O²⁻ > F⁻ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > Al³⁺
Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔᵢH)
Energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state.
Across a period → Increases (higher Z_eff)
Down a group → Decreases (larger size + more shielding)
Important Exceptions:
Be > B and Mg > Al → Fully filled s² configuration is more stable
N > O and P > S → Half-filled p³ configuration is more stable
Noble gases have the highest ionisation enthalpies
Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔₑgH)
Enthalpy change when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom.
Generally more negative across a period, less negative down a group.
Halogens have the most negative values (almost complete octet).
Exceptions: O and F have less negative values than expected because of small size and high inter-electronic repulsion.
Electronegativity
Ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
Highest: Fluorine (4.0 on Pauling scale)
Lowest among common elements: Cesium / Francium
Valency and Oxidation States
Valency is usually equal to the number of valence electrons or 8 minus number of valence electrons.
Across a period: 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 3 → 2 → 1 → 0
Elements of the same group generally show similar valency.