Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

Chapter 2 is divided into 2 this parts namely: (1)

Theory and Practical Application ;(2) Synthesis.

Part one, Theory and Practical Application, discusses

the significance of the subject and literature.

Part two, the Synthesis, discusses the uniqueness and

it similarities to the other studies already conducted.

Theory and Practical Application

According to Duncan et al. (2018) The integration of

theory and practical application in education, particularly

in Science, Technology, and Engineering (STE), is critical

for enhancing student learning and engagement. Research

indicates that curricula that incorporate real-world

applications of theoretical concepts significantly improve

student understanding .

Researcher further argued that integrating real-world

problems into the curriculum enhances student engagement and

comprehension. Contextualized learning, which ties

theoretical concepts to local and global issues, fosters

critical thinking and applicability. Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning is shown to significantly improve

student outcomes.

This is also supported by the idea presented by

Freeman et al.,(2014) which provide evidence that students

who participate in active learning demonstrate higher

performance in STE subjects compared to those engaged in

traditional lecture formats. Active participation fosters a

sense of ownership over learning. Interest in STE Fields

Programs that expose students to STE careers can motivate

students to pursue practical applications of theoretical

knowledge.

Also incorporating active learning strategies, such as

group projects and hands-on experiments, fosters engagement.

Research suggests that when students are actively involved

in learning, students are more likely to apply theoretical

knowledge practically.

Kermansaravi et al.,(2015)mention that theory practice

gap that have been mentioned in the literature includes the

following reasons:instructor related factors and

organizational factors. Instructor related factors: the

practical clinical instructors or preceptors may be very

well versed, experienced and skilled in their work but lack

pedagogical skills and knowledge of educational methods and

theories. Organizational factors: these are factors related

to policies and strategies of the clinical wards and the

university. These include: inadequate coordination between

the theoretical lectures and the practical sessions, a long

time lag between theoretical lectures and practical

apprenticeship prevents students, and too many students in

the ward preventing individualized feedback.

According to Darling-Hammond,(2015)professional

development focusing on active learning techniques helps

teachers design engaging, context-rich lessons.

Research also added that Collaborative teaching

strategies that involve multiple educators can enhance the

learning experience by providing diverse perspectives and

expertise, thereby reinforcing the connection between theory

and practice.

Also,suggested that when educators work together,

sharing resources and expertise, students benefit from

diverse teaching styles and perspectives, creating a more

robust learning experience. Student Engagement and

Motivation Active Learning Active learning strategies—such

as group projects and hands-on activities—are linked to

increased student engagement.

The study of Lemola et al., Zhang et al., (2020).

recognizes the challenges in completely implementing real-

world applications, like limited resources, time

constraints, and academic demands, it also emphasizes the

beneficial results of incorporating hands-on learning to

some extent. These advantages consist of better educational

achievement, advanced skill growth, and higher participation

in classroom social interactions.

The study also suggests a well-rounded method combining

theoretical teaching with practical tasks to strengthen

fundamental ideas, enabling students to progress from rote

learning to genuine understanding.

Malloy Ware et al.,(2019)also added that Partnerships

between science professionals and teachers can help address

this disparity, and operating within an established

community science program is an excellent way for teachers

and professionals to provide K-12 students opportunities for

involvement in real-world research.

In fact in the Philippine educational context, the K-12

curriculum emphasizes the importance of contextualizing

learning. For Grade 10, Science, Technology, and Engineering

modules are designed to include practical activities such as

experiments, design challenges, and case studies.

Also the K-12 curriculum in the Philippines emphasizes

the integration of Science and Technology in real-world

[Link], in particular, are exposed to modules

that aim to balance theoretical concepts with practical

applications. However, challenges persist due to limited

resources and uneven implementation across schools.

Moreover, gaps remain in ensuring that these

activities are effectively implemented, particularly in

schools with limited resources. Studies suggest that

providing teachers with adequate training and resources is

crucial to bridging the theory-practice gap in Philippine

schools.

Jennifer M Weller et al.,(2021)demonstrates that

medical students value simulation‐based learning highly. In

particular, students value the opportunity to apply

theoretical knowledge in a safe and realistic setting, to

develop teamwork skills and to develop a systematic approach

to a problem. A medium fidelity simulator is a valuable

educational tool in medical undergraduate education.

Athira Balakrishnan et al.,(2018)exposes that, students

should expose to more practical experience apart from the

theoretical knowledge . As the world becoming more and more

professionally competent, it is paramount to enhance

professional standards of graduates to keep their wheel

moving.

In the research conducted by MComas,(2018)it indicates

that one of the main challenges in education is the "theory-

practice gap." This gap often arises due to the traditional

teaching approaches that focus heavily on memorization and

theoretical understanding, neglecting practical applications

This support the claim of Anderson, (2019)which shown

that students struggle to see the relevance of what they

learn in the classroom when it is not tied to hands-on

activities or real-life scenarios . This disconnect can lead

to decreased student motivation and [Link] play

a crucial role in integrating theory and practice. Effective

teacher training programs equip educators with the skills to

facilitate hands-on activities and real-world applications.

Studies conducted by Navarro and Santos,(2020) suggest

that teacher collaboration with industry experts

significantly improves students' understanding of practical

[Link] teachers and various educational

professionals, lifelong learning is considered important for

improving knowledge and career advancement.

This claim is closely supports Westbury et al.,(2017)

claim that in educational and professional programmes

theoretically and practically oriented courses are

intertwined. The perspective on the learning process over

time might influence the division between educational

‘theory’ and ‘practice’

 Delia Corina Mihaltan,(2019)focuses on the logical path

that a student or a novice in this field must follow in

order to apply theoretical knowledge into practice. The

role, the structure, and the features of the financial

information system (as part of the informational system of

the entity) are presented in comparison with the accounting

ledgers used in the traditional accounting (where

transactions were recorded manually).

According to Dillion,(2018) there are many reasons for

doing practical work for Scientific subject in school. Some

of the reason are to encourage accurate observations and

descriptions to change theories into real life application

to keep the interest of students in scientific studies and

promote a logical and reasoning method of thought.

As Osvaldo Luiz et al.,(2021)explored how early

childhood physical education practicums helped Brazilian

pre-service teachers (PSTs) connect academic knowledge to

practical experience. Through repeated lessons, PSTs

developed new strategies and emphasized the importance of

understanding students, diverse teaching styles, and content

knowledge. Findings highlight the value of university-school

partnerships in bridging theory and practice.

Moreover Martínez León, Hilda Cecilia et al.,

(2019)find out that using problem-based learning, students

 worked on real-world projects, enhancing their ability to

apply theoretical knowledge while developing professional

skills. Survey results showed students gained confidence

in solving practical problems, found career advancement

easier with LSS green belt certification, and transitioned

more effectively into the workforce. This framework

offers a scalable model for collaborative learning in

undergraduate education.

Khritish Swargiary,(2024)stated that academic settings,

students develop a strong foundation in theoretical

concepts, but they often lack the opportunity to see how

these theories translate into [Link] is widely argued

that practical work to teaching and learning in the field of

scientific studies and that good quality practical work

helps develop students understunding of scientific procesess

and concepts

Also Yulia Muchnik-Rozanov et al. (2024)using the

Simulation-Based Learning revealed that teacher,parent

communication reveals the theory and the practice.

Bryson D. Kinyaduka,(2017) paper raises pertinent

issues regarding an obvious gap that prevails between theory

and practice in various professions. The paper makes it

clear that there is theory-practice gap among professions;

however, it focuses more on informing theory-practice gap in

the teaching profession. The paper identifies and informs of

causes, effects and practical solutions of theory-practice

gap in education, in particular, in the teaching profession.

Finally, the paper provides a tentative explanation for

theory-practice gap persistence, and it raises important

questions that may need researchers’ attention.

According to Ng & Murnane,(2015)while theory equips

students with conceptual knowledge, it is the practical

application that allows every students to refine

understanding, test hypotheses, and engage in authentic

learning experiences.

Also highlighted that the Peters et al.,(2018)

difficulty in aligning curriculum content with real-world

applications, especially when resources, time, or expertise

are limited. For instance, not all schools have access to

state-of-the-art laboratories or industry partnerships.

Additionally, the pressure of meeting educational standards

and preparing students for standardized tests may limit the

extent to which practical applications are integrated into

the curriculum.

Beyer et al.,(2017)suggested that internships or

collaborations with industries can help students link

classroom knowledge with the workplace. Although more

commonly implemented in higher education, integrating real-

world applications at the high school level—such as through

school-based industry partnerships or career days—can

enhance the relevance of theoretical concepts. This kind of

exposure helps students recognize the importance of their

studies in real-world contexts.

Furtheremore as stated by Kolb et al.,(2019) a dynamic

process that integrates direct experience with reflective

thought, making learning more effective when students engage

in real-world tasks and challenges. It suggests that

individuals learn best when they can apply what they have

learned in practical, hands-on situations, allowing them to

refine their skills and deepen their understanding.

As asserted by Nwagbara et al.,(2019)despite the

theoretical consensus, the gap between theory and practice

remains a persistent challenge in education. The literature

identifies several barriers,mMany classrooms still rely on

lecture-based, teacher-centered approaches. This method

often leads to rote learning, where students fail to

connect.

Additionally, despite the widely accepted importance of

bridging theory and practice, several barriers hinder its

effective implementation, particularly in Grade 10 STE

education, many classrooms still rely on teacher-centered,

lecture-based instruction. This passive learning style often

fails to engage students actively and limits their

opportunities to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world

scenarios. The lack of opportunities for active learning

and inquiry can lead to superficial understanding and poor

retention of information.

Hwang et al.,(2016)stated that the digital age, virtual

simulations and argumented reality (AR) tools are

increasingly used to replicate laboratory experiments or

engineering tasks. Studies by show that these tools help

students visualize complex concepts and gain practical

experience in a cost-effective [Link] what they learn

with its practical relevance.

Research offers a range of strategies for bridging this

divide. These approaches can enhance student engagement and

improve learning outcomes: Use of Technology and

Simulations.

Moreover as claimed by Ertmer & Simons,(2006)in their

study says that Science, Technology, Engineering, and

Mathematics (STEM) is considered a cornerstone of modern

education systems, as it prepares students to meet the

demands of an increasingly technology-driven world. However,

bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical

application remains a significant challenge in secondary

education. Several barriers prevent the effective

integration of practical learning in Grade 10 science and

engineering education. These include limited access to

laboratory equipment, time constraints, and teachers’ lack

of training in implementing inquiry-based and project-based

learning methods.

Osborne & Dillon,(2008)added the disparity between the

curriculum’s goals and real-world applications often leads

to gaps in students’ comprehension and motivation.

In the manuscript of Dewey (1938)bridging theoretical

knowledge with practical applications is a crucial aspect of

effective teaching, particularly in science, technology, and

engineering (STE). Foundational theorists like advocate for

experiential learning, emphasizing the importance of

"learning by doing" to make education relevant to real-world

challenges.

Similarly, Vygotsky's (1978)sociocultural theory

highlights the role of practical activities in deepening

students' understanding and internalization of abstract

concepts. These theories serve as the bedrock for modern

educational practices aimed at integrating hands-on learning

into the curriculum.

As presented by Jansen & van der Merwe,(2020)limited

resources, including laboratory equipment, technology, and

qualified instructors, pose significant challenges,

especially in under-resourced schools . The lack of access

to necessary materials and expertise restricts the ability

to implement hands-on activities and projects and a lot

more.

Introduced by Zion & Mendelovici,(2012)active learning

approach fosters critical thinking and deepens understanding

of scientific principles. For example, students could

investigate the effectiveness of different water filtration

methods, applying their knowledge of chemistry and

engineering principles.

Herrington and Oliver (2017). also discovered that

authentic learning approaches can help bridge the gap

between theoretical and practical knowledge.

One of this is in the manuscript of Hung et al. (2019)

which found that problem-based learning approaches can help

students develop practical skills and apply theoretical

knowledge in real-world contexts.

Same through with Johnson and Johnson,(2017)who claims

that collaborative learning approaches can help bridge the

gap between theoretical and practical knowledge.

As Wurdinger et al. (2017) explored the significance of

experiential learning, focusing on its ability to integrate

theoretical and practical knowledge. Emphasized the

importance of involving students in hands-on activities such

as internships, project-based learning, and community

engagement. They found that experiential learning provides

students with opportunities to apply classroom knowledge in

real-world contexts, enhancing skills like problem-solving,

collaboration, and adaptability.

Asserted by Thomas et al., (2018) states that project-

based learning (PBL) effectively helps students bridge the

gap between theoretical knowledge and real-world

applications. Through hands-on projects, students develop

critical skills such as problem-solving, collaboration, and

time management while applying academic concepts in

practical contexts. This pedagogical approach emphasizes

active engagement, autonomy, and the integration of learning

with real-world challenges. Additionally, the research

suggests that PBL fosters deeper understanding, enhances

critical thinking, and prepares students for the workforce

by cultivating adaptability and interdisciplinary skills.

Bridging the gap between theory and practical

application in involves a multifaceted approach that

incorporates curriculum design, teacher development, student

engagement, assessment practices, and resource availability.

By addressing these interconnected variables, educators can

create a more integrated and effective learning environment,

equipping students with the skills necessary to face real-

world challenges in STE fields.

Synthesis

The integration of theory and practical application is

pivotal for enhancing student learning, particularly in

Science, Technology, and Engineering (STE) fields. Numerous

studies emphasize that curricula incorporating real-world

applications of theoretical concepts significantly improve

student engagement and [Link] linking theoretical

knowledge with practical experiences, students gain a

deeper, more meaningful understanding of the subject matter,

moving beyond rote memorization to genuine comprehension.

This approach fosters critical thinking, enhances student

motivation, and prepares learners to apply their knowledge

in real-world [Link] strategies for bridging the

theory-practice gap include active learning, inquiry-based

learning, and hands-on experiences. Studies consistently

show that active participation in learning through group

projects, experiments, and real-world problem solving

improves student outcomes in STE education. Inquiry-based

learning, where students actively investigate and solve

problems, not only strengthens understanding but also boosts

engagement and skill development. Furthermore, exposure to

real-world issues—through case studies, design challenges,

and collaborations with industry professionals—provides

context for abstract concepts and enhances the relevance of

what students learn. However, bridging this gap is not

without challenges. Limited resources, time constraints, and

the reliance on traditional lecture-based instruction remain

significant barriers to the effective integration of

practical learning experiences. These challenges are

particularly evident in under-resourced schools, where

access to technology and hands-on materials may be limited.

As noted by Kermansaravi et al. (2015), instructor-related

factors, such as insufficient pedagogical training, and

organizational factors, such as inadequate coordination

between theory and practice, further complicate the

implementation of practical learning. To address these

barriers, several solutions have been proposed. Professional

development for educators, focusing on active learning

techniques and collaborative teaching strategies, is crucial

for equipping teachers to effectively integrate theory and

practice. Collaborative partnerships between schools and

industry professionals, as seen in projects involving

internships and industry-linked curricula, can enhance the

real-world applicability of classroom learning and provide

students with exposure to professional environments.

Additionally, the use of technology and simulations, such as

virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), can help

overcome resource limitations by providing immersive, cost-

effective alternatives to hands-on experiments.

The K-12 educational framework in various countries,

such as the Philippines, reflects a growing emphasis on

contextualizing learning by incorporating practical

activities alongside theoretical instruction. However,

challenges persist in ensuring equitable access to resources

and teacher training. In higher education, initiatives like

capstone courses and university-industry partnerships aim to

bridge this gap by engaging students in real-world problem-

solving. These strategies demonstrate the value of

experiential and problem-based learning approaches in

enhancing students' ability to apply theoretical knowledge

in professional settings.

Finally, bridging the theory-practice gap in STE

education requires a multifaceted approach that includes

curriculum innovation, teacher development, resource

allocation, and the strategic use of technology. By

fostering active learning environments, encouraging real-

world applications, and supporting educator collaboration,

educators can provide students with the tools they need to

succeed in an increasingly complex and practical world.

Addressing these challenges holistically will help create an

educational ecosystem where students are not only

knowledgeable but also capable of applying their learning to

solve real-world problems.

Studies emphasize the importance of connecting

theoretical knowledge with practical applications in

education. It focuses on hands-on learning and real-world

experiences to help students apply learned concepts,

discusses how integrating real-world problems into curricula

improves comprehension and engagement. Advocate for active

learning strategies (such as project-based learning, hands-

on activities, and real-world simulations) as a means to

make learning more relevant and engaging for students. The

use of contextualized learning, which ties academic concepts

to real-life issues, constructivist theories of learning,

which emphasize that students actively build knowledge

through experience and interaction. Research supporting the

benefits of hands-on learning. For instance, the findings by

Anderson et al. (2021), which show that real-world learning

enhances critical thinking, while the study references

research by Freeman et al. (2014), which demonstrates that

active participation improves student performance in STE

subjects. studies acknowledge the challenges of fully

implementing practical learning, such as limited resources,

time constraints, and teacher preparedness.

In summary, studies emphasize the significance of

integrating theory and practice through hands-on learning,

active engagement, and real-world problem-solving within STE

education. Researchers highlight the importance of teacher

training, overcoming barriers such as limited resources, and

fostering student motivation to bridge the gap between

theoretical knowledge and its practical application.

The study's unique contributions include its focus on

inquiry-based learning, teacher collaboration, career

exposure, and the use of technology to bridge the theory-

practice gap. It also provides a broader discussion of the

barriers to real-world application and offers insights into

how educators can navigate these challenges.