GUIDEBOOK – HISTORY OF ROME

A. The birth of Rome (myth)

The foundation of Rome is surrounded by many myths and legends, many of
which disagreeing over names, dates, and the sequence of events.
In one popular narrative, Rome was founded by Romulus on April 21 st, 753 BC.
Romulus and his twin brother Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia, the daughter
of King Numitor of Alba Longa, a mythical kingdom in the Alban Hills. Numitor
was deposed by his brother Amulius, and, afraid that Rhea Silvia’s sons would
reclaim the throne, Amulius ordered them to be drowned in the Tiber. However,
the twins were washed ashore near the foot of Palatine hill, and nursed by a she-
wolf named Lupa. They were then found by a shepherd named Faustulus, and
raised by him and his wife. After learning of their identity, Romulus and Remus
returned to Alba Longa, killed Amulius, and restored their grandfather Numitor
as the rightful ruler. The twins then decided to establish a town, but a quarrel led
to Romulus kill Remus, and he named the town Rome, after himself. However, as
Rome opened its doors to exiles and fugitives, it lacked women, and so Romulus
allegedly abducted the women of a neighboring people, the Sabines. A merger of
the two kingdoms and the death of the Sabine ruler, Tatius, meant that Romulus
was the sole ruler of Rome. After he died, some worshipped him as the deity
Quirinus.
A prominent Grecian myth attributes Romulus and Remus to Aeneas, a survivor
of Troy. After Troy fell, Aeneas fled to Latium, where he was welcomed by king
Latinus and married his daughter, Lavinia, after a battle with a rival suitor. A new
city named Lavinium was founded, but after Aeneas’ death, his son moved the
settlement to Alba Longa, and that lineage gave birth to Romulus and Remus.
Many other myths regarding Rome’s founding have circulated since the Pyrrhic
War, with variations on the name and origin of the founders. The established
time of Rome’s founding ranges from 1184 BC, as claimed by historian Gnaeus
Naevius, or approximately 729 BC, as claimed by Cincius Alimentus. Some claim
the founder’s name as “Rhome” or “Rhomos”,and dispute the origin. One
variation claims Romos, son of Odysseus, was the founder, while another claims
it was Romus, son of Zeus. The origin of the settlement itself is disputed, with
one variation claiming Rome was an Arcadian colony founded by Evander, son of
Hermes.
The myths of Rome’s founding are generally reflective of its political stance, and
the narratives generally assert justifications for political actions. For example,
when Rome conquered parts of ancient Greece in the Third Macedonian War, the
myth of Aeneas was promoted as the Romans sought to use their Trojan origins
to justify conflict with Greece. The long line of Alban Kings descending from
Aeneas was created to fill a significant time gap in Rome’s founding, and
connect Rome with the gods. This allowed many prestigious families to claim
divine ancestry. This illustrates that many myths were propagated over time in
accordance with political tensions.
B. The Roman Kingdom
The Roman Kingdom
Before the official founding of the city, in the Bronze Age, Rome was inhabited by
small-scale, prehistoric settlements that gradually united to form primitive city-
states. Excavations from the last Bronze Age show the settlement of Capitoline hill,
and the surrounding Quirinal, Aventine and Janiculum hills. The Roman Kingdom
was established with the founding of the city in 753 BC, and Romulus was its first
king, according to tradition. The next King was elected by the Senate, and served
for life, as Rome functioned as an elective monarchy. There were seven semi-
legendary Roman kings, with the last being Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, at the end
of whose reign the Republic was established. During the time of the Roman
kingdom, the administrative bodies such as popular assemblies and the Senate
became more clearly defined, while the king held absolute executive and religious
authority.
The first Roman families were established as clans, or “gens” and were represented
by a male patriarch, or “pater”, and these representatives founded a board of
elders, and elected rulers. Later, male representatives of all families would
participate in the Curiate, a popular assembly to ratify laws and power. The citizens
would decide whether a new king was fit to rule, and if so would grant him
Imperium.
The Senate is said to have been first founded by the Romulus, who chose 100 men
from the wealthy aristocratic families of Rome. The Senate’s function was to elect
new kings, act as a legislative body for the people, and be the king’s council. When
a king died, the Senate would appoint a senator as a temporary ruler for 5 days,
and that ruler would have to nominate a candidate for kingship. Otherwise, the next
appointed Senator would also rule for 5 days, and the cycle would continue until a
nominee for kingship was approved by the Senate and the Curiate assembly.
The king still retains power as the head of the kingdom’s religion, as well as chief
judge, chief executive and chief legislator. With the granted power of Imperium, the
king could issue decrees with the force of law and appoint all officeholders. A
tribune and an Urban Prefect, or Praefectus urbi, have to be elected, and they would
leave upon a king’s death. The Prefect held all the king’s powers when the king was
away from the city. The king also reserved for himself the right to appoint patricians
to the Senate. Additionally, the king was also the Chief Judge, which meant he could
appoint two detectives, Quaestores parricidii, to investigate serious crimes, such as
murder, sacrilege, or treason. Though the king possessed absolute authority to rule
on every case, a criminal court, called Duumviri Perduellionis, was created to
prosecute and oversee serious cases against the state, such as high treason.
The line of Roman kings starts with the semi-legendary Romulus, whose reign lasted
from approximately 753 to 716 BC. After a year, the second king, Numa Pompilius
was elected, and he reigned from 715 to 672 BC. Pompilius was reportedly a king of
peace, and Plutarch writes that conflict was excluded in nearly all Italy, and people
from many regions came to mourn his death. By contrast, the third king, Tullus
Hostilius, who ruled from 672 to 740 BC, actively sought out war, neglected
religious worship, and according to tradition, was killed by Jupiter with a lightning
strike. His successor, Ancus Marcius, ruling from 640 to 616 BC, promoted religion,
and expanded Rome’s territory through the conquest of several Latin towns. The
next ruler, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, ruled from 640 to 616 BC, was the first
Etruscan king. In addition to constructing important infrastructure, Priscus also
introduced numerous Etruscan symbols, such as the purple toga, into Roman
tradition. His successor, Servius Tullius, was Priscus’ son-in-law, and ruled from 578
to 534 BC. Servius was, by all accounts, a popular king, and improved the lives of
the lowest classes, but was murdered by his successor and his daughter. The last
king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, ruled from 534 to 509 BC, and was regarded as a
tyrant, in that he judged criminal cases without consultation and killed some
senators and reduced the Senate’s size and power. His downfall precipitated the
rise of the Roman Republic.
The downfall of Tarquinius Superbus was traditionally said to have started when one
of his sons, Sextus Tarquinius, assaults an aristocratic noblewoman, who then
commits suicide. This outrage reportedly caused the coup which overthrew the
monarchy and elected the first two consuls. However, modern theories differ, on the
part that after the formation of the Republic, multiple invasions by the Etruscans,
especially by Lars Porsenna, were successfully repelled. According to other
variations, Porsenna actually managed to capture Rome, and installed co-rulers to
manage the city for him. After Porsenna’s withdrawal, the two rulers, Lucius Junius
Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, were chosen to remain as the first consuls.
C. The Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, after the overthrow of the monarchy,
and semi-legendary Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus were the
first consuls. The early Republic was in a state of perpetual war, facing enemies
such as the Latin League, the Etruscan kingdom, and various tribes from the
Apennine range, such as the Sabines or the Samnites. A long series of wars were
fought against the neighboring Etruscan kingdom, starting from Rome’s founding
and concluding in approximately 298 BC.
Apart from external threats, Roman domestic politics was also chaotic. The
aristocratic class had long dominated the lower classes, but a domestic conflict
called the Conflict of the Orders changed the power dynamics of politics. Lasting
from 500 to 287 BC, the conflict featured five secessions, or general strikes, by the
plebian class in protest of abuse by the aristocratic classes. As Rome could not
function without the lower classes, negotiations were conducted, and the plebian
tribune was established in 494 BC. The Comitia Populi Tributa was founded in 357
BC, allowing all classes to participate and pass legislation according to tribe. With
such domestic developments, by around 360 BC, plebians had near political
equality with the aristocratic patrician class. The positions of dictator, consul, or
priest were no longer restricted to the elite.
The Roman political system consisted of magistracy, the Senate, and various
popular assemblies. The magistrates were elected by the people, and could operate
within the power of their offices, and their powers increased according to their office
ranks. The highest magistrates could conduct debates in some popular assemblies,
and were sometimes bestowed the power Imperium. Several magistrate titles were
Praetor, Aediles, Censors, or Consuls, while extraordinary magistrate posts included
Dictator. The popular assemblies included the Curiate assembly, the Plebian council,
the Centuriate committee, and the Tribal assembly. The Curiate was the oldest
assembly, grouping citizens into 30 voting clans, and was retained mainly for formal
and religious purposes. The Centuriate committee was used to elect magistrates
with Imperium, such as consuls and praetors, and grouped citizens into Centuries to
vote. The wealthy elite held the majority of the centuries, while the lower classes
were grouped into the minority, leading to a wealth disparity among voters. The
Plebian council and Tribal assembly both divided voters into tribes based on
geographic location, and the legislation issued is virtually binding. The Senate
remained the most influential advisory body, despite its limited powers. The Senate
exercised the right to appoint magistrates, as well as managing religious issues,
money and foreign policy. Together, these assemblies kept a balance of power in
Roman politics as various parties competed for prestige and power.
As the consulship was more open, consuls had to gain public support and boost
their popularity. One prominent way to accomplish that was by extensive military
conquest and territorial gains. Ás such, Rome experienced a series of territorial
wars, starting from its expansion into the surrounding Italian peninsula. Since 390
BC, Rome had fought the Gallic tribes from the North, and had once been defeated
and pillaged. Many battles against Gallic tribes would continue for hundreds of
years. From 343 BC to 282 BC, Rome came to dominate the Italian peninsula. The
Romans engaged in the Latin war, after the betrayal of allies in the Latin league,
three wars with the Samnite tribe, and erased Etruscan presence in Italy. After that,
Rome was engaged in the Pyrrhic war, a conflict with Pyrrhus of Epirus, and
annexed Marcia Grecia, a Greek colony.
After subjugating territories up to the natural barrier of the Alps, Roman consuls
began to search for prospective colonies southward. This led them to engage in the
Punic Wars, lasting from 264 to 146 BC, against Carthage. Carthage, at the time,
was a wealthy, powerful nation on the North African coast, with a developed navy.
This forced Rome to improve its own naval tactics, and it eventually defeated
Carthage, forcing temporary peace. However, Carthaginian general Hannibal began
his Spanish conquest, and eventually crossed the Alps into Rome. In response,
Rome sent an army under Scipio Africanus to threaten Carthage, forcing Hannibal’s
return and ultimate defeat. The Punic Wars concluded after Rome burned Carthage
to the ground, and subjugated its North African territories, granting some to
Numidia.
From 219 to 18 BC, Rome embarked on a campaign to conquer the Iberian
Peninsula, calling it the province Hispania. Iberia previously belonged to Carthage,
and contained rich resources, such as iron and silver. With fierce resistance almost
immediately at Ebro and Saguntum, the Romans proceeded to divide Iberia into
Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Criterior, and increase the number of praetors to try
and consolidate its rule. Rome’s governance was reportedly harsh and extortive,
leading to numerous uprisings, such as the Celtiberian war and the Numantine war,
which were costly and difficult.
The Romans, having been occupied with Hispania, allowed king Phillip V of Macedon
to make incursions into their territory. The result was four successive Macedonian
wars, lasting from 214 to 148 BC, fought by the Romans against the Macedonians,
the Selleucid empire and other Greek kingdoms in the Achaean League. Rome
dissolved the Achaean league with the victorious battle of Corinth in 146 BC, and
annexed Greece, Syria and Egypt, ending the Hellenistic period.
Near the end of the 2nd century BC, Rome fought the Jugurthine war with Numidia.
Gaius Marius, consul at the time, successfully executed Jugurtha, and Numidian
territory was divided. Rome also engaged in a series of clashes with northern
Germanic tribes. The Romans, led by Gaius Marius, decisively defeated many
important tribes, such as the Scirians, the Teutons, and the Cimbri.
In 87 BC, the Romans began the first Mithridatic war, a conflict with the kingdom of
Pontus in Asia Minor. After three Mithridatic wars, the king of Pontus, Mithridates,
committed suicide in 63 BC. At this time, Pompey was overseeing extensive
campaigns in the East after the collapse of the Seleucid Empire. Roman forces
annexed Syria, Pella, and Damascus, advancing into Judea. The siege of Jerusalem
succeeded in 63BC, with Pompey entering the Second Temple.
In the 1st century BC, Rome experienced significant domestic tensions. The brutal
Social War of 91 BC was waged between Rome and its surrounding Italian allies. In
87 BC, the Romans began the first Mithridatic war, a conflict with the kingdom of
Pontus. Consul Sulla marched his army into Rome in 88 BC, and engaged in a civil
war with the Cinnan faction in 83 BC. Emerging victorious, Sulla was declared
dictator in 82 BC, though he soon resigned his post after numerous reforms. Then,
in 80 BC, another rebellion led by Quintus Sertorius in Hispania resulted in the
Sertorian War. Rome was then plagued by a slave uprising, the Third Servile war, in
73 BC, though the slaves, led by Spartacus, were defeated by Pompey 2 years later.
Despite such tensions, Marcus Tullius Cicero, a well-educated equestrian, rose to
consulship with strong support from the Senate and most of the Italian
municipalities. Cicero helped expose the Catilinarian conspiracy, a plot to seize
consulship by Lucius Sergius Catilina, and overthrow the standing consuls, Cicero
and Antonius. Cicero and his ally Cato then successfully convinced the Senate to
execute the conspirators.

The political situation in Rome

In the late Roman Republic, the senate and other assemblies were divided into
numerous factions. Two prominent groups were the Optimates and the Populares,
and alongside these were factions of individual generals, such as Pompey, and the
wealthy middle-class, or the Equestrians. Additionally, street gangs funded by
individual senators served to cause chaos and intimidate political rivals in the
streets.
The Optimates, or best men, were the conservative, aristocratic class that
traditionally dominated the Senate. They believed that Rome could only be
effectively governed by the best elites, not the uneducated lower classes. As they
were the elite class, their policies centered around conserving their material
advantages and maintaining their dominance over the popular assemblies. This
meant that they opposed policies which redistributed commodities, such as land or
grain. The Senate had a special law, the Senatus Consultum Ultimum, which
granted the Senate the ability to bypass laws and use all measures necessary to
stop an existential threat to Rome. However, this law was used in many cases to
repress political opponents of the conservative Optimates. To illustrate, the Senate
used this law to kill the Gracchus brothers after they attempted to redistribute land
to the lower classes. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla became dictator in 82 BC, his
reforms restored the Senate and gave the Optimates extensive power, by measures
such as executing political opponents and restricting the Plebian tribunes, a key tool
of the Populares. This solidified the position of the Optimates as the dominant
faction in Roman politics, allowing them to effectively oppose Populist policies. Near
the end of the Republic, the Senate had significant informal influence, and
magistrates rarely defied their advice. As many esteemed generals were also of
patrician and aristocratic classes, the Optimates often gain allegiance of the military
and other decision-making bodies. However, the Optimates’ policies such as
refusing agrarian reforms and repressing populist opponents earned them little
support among the masses.
The Populares, by contrast, actively promoted policies which promised to benefit
the people, as their political strategy involved overruling the conservative Senate.
These policies included redistributing land, grain dole and debt relief, which meant
that they were more popular with the public. However, these policies were
detrimental to the Optimates in the Senate, as it affected their material interests. As
such, many who attempted populist reform were strongly opposed and sometimes
violently oppressed by the Optimates in the Senate. While the Senate relied on its
own authority and power to pass legislation, the Populares had to bypass the
Senate using other assemblies, such as Plebian tribunals, the Comitia Tributa, or
Comitia Centuriata. The Plebeian Council was also an important legal tool, as laws
ratified by this council were legally binding, and did not need the ratification of the
Senate. These were the assemblies which utilized popular support and allowed
Populist senators to bypass the conservative Optimates and the Senate.
Additionally, mass meetings called Contiones could be convened to publicly debate
legislation and put pressure on conservative opponents and magistrates. Many
military generals with rising popularity have utilized these meetings to gain popular
support and pressure the Senate. The military could also be used to force favorable
decisions, as many Populist generals had gained a loyal military base through their
promises to veterans and soldiers. This meant the Populares could gain the support
of both the masses and the military, and thus override the legal opposition of the
Optimates.
While the ideologies of the Optimates and the Populares may be clearly conflicting,
it is difficult to classify senators into one of two groups. Many senators adopt
different stances throughout their careers, and simple definitions of what
constitutes a faction may not apply. For example, Marcius Porcius Cato Uticensis
was a staunch aristocratic conservative, but he also supported the Populist by
increasing grain doles.
Alongside the traditional factions in the senate, there were the wealthy merchant
class, or the equestrians. Though originally the cavalry class, the equites
established themselves in many other lucrative sectors, such as tax collecting,
banking or commerce. As Senators were predominantly landowners, and not
allowed to engage in large financial transactions and public contracts, this role was
left to the equestrians. As such, the most prominent defining feature of this class
was their extensive wealth. In order to enjoy the privileges of the equestrian class,
one must have property exceeding 400,000 sesterces. This extensive wealth
allowed the equites significant political influence, as they could fund political
campaigns. The equestrians’ alliance shifted between factions as they supported
whoever promoted their interests. As they wished to gain more control over the
provinces to aid in tax collection, the equites became more aligned with the
Populares. This was because the Optimates often tried to retain administrative
control over the provinces, while the Populist politicians and generals, such as Gaius
Gracchus, actively supported the equestrians by appointing them as administrators
or jurors. Pompey and Crassus, for example, passed Lex Aurelia, allowing equites to
sit in quaestiones or juries, and so gained their support. Prominent equestrians
sometimes have immense political influence, such is the case with Marcus Tullius
Cicero or Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Cicero became consul, while Balbus became a
close friend and personal secretary of Caesar.
In addition to three separate factions competing for their interests in Rome, there
were also street gangs and mobs to intimidate and cause political pressure. Two
main gangs aligned with the Optimates and Populares were operated by Titus
Annius Milo and Publius Clodius Pulcher, respectively. These were well-organized
groups of lower-class men that engaged in physical violence for the political
motives of their elite leaders. Famously, Pulcher’s gang caused Cicero to flee to
Greece in 58 BC. Violent mobs were also a common sight in the Republic’s political
turmoil. Large crowds could be emotionally swayed at rallies and public debates,
and so intimidate a political opponent. In one famous incident, the consul Bibulus,
co-consul of Caesar, tried to veto a reform by Caesar, but he was violently attacked
and had waste dumped onto him.
Powerful generals also had a power base of their own, and shifted alliances
whenever convenient. Pompey and Crassus each had a loyal following of veterans,
as they promised their armies land and wealth, what the Senate did not do. Marcus
Crassus was the one of the wealthiest men in Rome at the time, mostly by property
purchases and military campaigns. He had the resources to fund any senator in
power, and was also reportedly a skilled orator. Pompey the Great was also a
successful military general with numerous important victories, particularly in the
East. His success in Jerusalem, Syria and other territories granted him immense
wealth and made him hugely popular. Many territories charted and conquered by
Pompey were vassal states loyal to him, not the Senate, cementing his power.