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COMPILED NOTES OF
Unit 1: Structure-Functionalist and
Structuralist Thinkers

©ANTARA CHAKRABARTY

NTA-NET SOCIOLOGY 2025

(FOR ALL SOCIOLOGY EXAMS)

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Unit 1: Sociological Theory Part 5 (15/12/2025)

Structure Functionalist and Structuralist Thinkers

Bronislaw Malinowski

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Full Name Bronisław Kasper Malinowski

Birth 7 April 1884, Kraków (then Austria-Hungary; now Poland)

Death
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16 May 1942, New Haven, USA
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Discipline Social Anthropology; Sociology (methodological influence)

Academic Professor at London School of Economics (LSE)

Position
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Fieldwork Area Trobriand Islands (Melanesia)

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Methodological Founder of modern ethnographic fieldwork

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Importance
Founder of British School of Functionalism
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Father of Functional school of culture

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Functionalism (Biological Society is a system of institutions that function to satisfy basic

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Functionalism) biological and derived human needs.

Theory of Needs Culture exists to meet basic needs (nutrition, reproduction, shelter)
and derived needs (education, law, religion).

Participant Observation Long-term immersion in everyday life of the community to

understand culture from the native’s point of view.
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Native’s Point of View True understanding of culture comes from seeing how people
themselves interpret their world.

Kula Ring A ceremonial exchange system of shell valuables that creates social
bonds and status among islanders.

Critique of Armchair Rejected speculative anthropology based on second-hand reports.

Anthropology

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Culture as an Culture is a practical tool enabling individuals to cope with life
Instrumental Apparatus problems.

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Holistic Study of Culture Economic, religious, kinship, and political institutions must be
studied together.

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Bronislaw Malinowski: Psychological and Individual Functionalism

Central Focus kr
Culture functions to satisfy the biological and psychological needs
of individuals, not abstract social structures.
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View of Individual The individual is primary; society and institutions exist because
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individuals have needs.

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Psychological Cultural practices help individuals cope with fear, anxiety,

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Functionalism uncertainty, insecurity, and emotional stress.

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Role of Institutions Institutions such as family, religion, economy, and magic function to
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meet specific individual needs.

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Religion and Magic Religion and magic reduce psychological anxiety in situations
beyond human control (death, illness, danger).

Biological Needs Includes food, reproduction, shelter, safety, and health.

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Cultural Responses Culture develops institutions as responses to needs (e.g., kinship

for reproduction, magic for uncertainty).

Individual Functionalism Social facts are explained by how they serve individuals, not society
as a whole.

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Methodological Position Emphasis on participant observation to understand needs from the
native’s point of view.

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Key Work Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922); A Scientific Theory of

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Culture (posthumous).
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Difference from Focuses on individual needs and psychology rather than social
Radcliffe-Brown structure.
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Belonged from an upper middle class Polish family

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He was a huge supporter of field work and created many new methods in social theory and founder of
social anthropology
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Largely inspired by James Frazer and his Golden Bough religion and magical practices
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He was stuck after World War I, therefore decided to go to Trobriand Islands in Melanesia where he
stayed for several years and published his first seminal work Argonauts of Western Pacific (1922)
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His ethnography of the Trobriand Islands was later complemented by The Sexual Life of Savages in
North Western Melanesia (1929) and Coral Gardens and Their Magic (1935)
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Approach

His approach: psychological functionalism on how social and cultural institutions serve basic human
needs

Individuals are more important

For him participant observation is not merely being there but also doing what others are doing, know
the native language

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Ethnography and Participant Observation

He stated that the goal of the anthropologist, or ethnographer, is “to grasp the native’s point of view”
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The method of statistical documentation by concrete evidence

Recording the imponderabilia of actual life and of typical behaviour

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Making a corpus inscriptionum

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Malinowski types of needs

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Malinowski system levels
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Malinowski's functionalism reintroduces Spencer’s approach to employ functional analysis.

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Malinowski reintroduced two important ideas from Spencer:

(1) The notion of system levels and

(2) The concept of different and multiple system needs at each level

He wrote, “…culture comprises inherited artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits and values.”

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Institution and Its Elements

Upon analysis, he believed, any institution resolves itself into six interrelated elements:

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(1) personnel, a group of individuals cooperating in the performance of a common task;

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(2) material apparatus, the artifacts employed in their activities;

(3) norms, the rules or ideal patterns to which behavior is expected to conform;

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(4) activities, the behavior, including deviation from norms, which actually takes place in the
performance of the joint tasks;
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(5) charter, the express cultural definition of the common aims or purpose of the institution; and

(6) function, the actual effect of the collective enterprise in satisfying man needs.
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Bronislaw Malinowski: Basic Needs and Cultural Responses

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Basic Needs Cultural Responses

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Metabolism Commissariat
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Reproduction Kinship
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Bodily comforts Shelter

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Safety Protection

Movement and growth Activities and Training

Health Hygiene

Malinowski: Rules of Craftsmanship & Scientific Knowledge of Primitive Man

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Empirical Case Used Malinowski studied canoe building among the Trobriand Islanders during
his fieldwork.

Rules of Craftsmanship Canoe building followed systematic, fixed, and tested technical rules,
learned through practice and tradition.

Observation & Islanders used empirical observation, trial-and-error, and accumulated

Experience experience.

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Technical Precision Choice of wood, shape, balance, length, and durability showed practical
engineering knowledge.

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Transmission of Knowledge was transmitted through apprenticeship, imitation, and
Knowledge collective memory.

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Scientific Attitude Activities showed rationality, causality, and predictability, core features
of science.

Role of Magic
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Magic was used only where technical knowledge ended (e.g., sea
danger, weather uncertainty).
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Science vs Magic Science and magic coexisted, but served different functions.

Malinowski’s Argument Primitive people are not pre-logical; they are practical scientists in daily
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life.

Critique of Evolutionists Malinowski rejected the idea that primitive thought is irrational or inferior.
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Definition of Science Science = systematic knowledge based on experience, regularity, and

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(Implicit) utility, not written formulas.

Key Conclusion Primitive man possesses scientific knowledge, though embedded in

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culture and practice.

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Bronislaw Malinowski – Kula Ring

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Meaning of Kula The Kula is a ceremonial exchange system among the Trobriand Islanders in the
Milne Bay region of Papua New Guinea.

Nature of It is a non-commercial, ceremonial exchange based on prestige, not profit.

Exchange
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Objects Two valuables are exchanged: Soulava (shell necklaces) and Mwali (shell
Exchanged armbands).

Direction of Soulava moves clockwise (northward); Mwali moves counter-clockwise

Exchange (southward) in a ring.

Geographical The exchange links many islands into a vast inter-island network.
Spread

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Frequency Kula expeditions occur once or twice a year.

Mode of Exchange Exchange takes place during long canoe voyages involving ritual preparation.

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Ownership Kula valuables are never permanently owned; they must be passed on.

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Social Function It creates social solidarity, trust, alliances, and peace between groups.

Political Function Enhances the status and influence of Kula participants.

Economic Aspect
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Kula is not economic trade, but it indirectly facilitates everyday barter.
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Symbolic Value Kula objects have symbolic and ritual value, not use-value.

Relation to Magic Canoe building and voyages involve rituals and magic to ensure success.
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Theoretical Demonstrates functionalism: institutions serve social needs.

Importance
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Malinowski’s Kula is a total social institution integrating economy, politics, religion, and
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Conclusion kinship.
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1916 — Baloma: The Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands

1922 — Argonauts of the Western Pacific
1926 — Crime and Custom in Savage Society
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1927 — Sex and Repression in Savage Society

1929 — The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia
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1935 — Coral Gardens and Their Magic (Vol. I & II)

1939 — The Foundations of Faith and Morals
1944 — A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays (Posthumous)
1948 — Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays (Posthumous)
1967 — A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term (Posthumous)
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Radcliffe Brown

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Full Name kr
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown: Biography, Theories & Contributions

Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown

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Birth – Death 1881 – 1955

Nationality British
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Discipline Social Anthropology

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Intellectual Tradition Structural Functionalism

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Major Influence Émile Durkheim

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Academic Orientation Society-centred analysis

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Fieldwork Areas Andaman Islands, Australia

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Institutional Role Helped establish social anthropology as a scientific discipline

Travelled to Andaman Islands (1906–1908)

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His main focus was on social structure rather than biological needs where institutions are
orderly sets of relationships whose function is to maintain the society as a system

He has been described as the “classical Bronislaw Malinowski’s romantic”

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The ‘social’ was a separate level of reality distinct from biological forms and inorganic
matter

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Individuals are replaceable and transient and hence irrelevant

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His prime areas of field work were Andaman Islands and Western Australia

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Main focus areas were kinship, descent theory, inter-group relations etc.
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He was largely inspired from Durkheim

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Core Theoretical Position

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Structural Functionalism Society is a system of interrelated social structures whose functions

maintain social order.
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Primacy of Structure Social structure, not individual needs, is the focus of analysis.
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Function Function refers to the contribution a social institution makes to the

maintenance of the social system.

Rejection of Psychology Psychological explanations are inadequate for understanding social facts.

Comparative Method Advocated systematic comparison to discover social laws.

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Key Concepts & Contributions

Social Structure An arrangement of social relations that persists over time.

Social Function The role institutions play in maintaining structural continuity.

Structural Continuity Society continues despite change in individuals.

Comparative Sociology Search for general laws across societies.

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Natural Science of Society Anthropology should be nomothetic, not descriptive.

Kinship Studies Analysed kinship as a system of social relations.

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Ritual and Religion Rituals reinforce social solidarity.

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Goal of anthropology should be to compare different societies and formulate general social laws

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His famous work on Joking Relationships, 1940
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Major work on kinship from South Africa named The Mother’s Brother in South Africa, 1924

Influenced by Comte, Durkheim and Montesquieu

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He says social structure is not an abstraction but empirical reality

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The most important structural feature is the arrangement of people into dyadic or
person-to-person relationships
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Social structure refers to arrangement of persons and organisations or arrangement of activities

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Institutions define for a person how he is expected to behave and also how he may expect others to
behave
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Ceremonial Weeping
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Andamanese ceremonies are marked by formal weeping

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Formal weeping takes place when social relations have been disturbed or interrupted and are about
to be resumed
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Ceremonial weeping marks the fact that the long separation is over and friendship will resume once
more
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Brown on Totemism

Durkheim does not touch upon a crucial question, namely why are natural objects selected as totems?

Radcliffe-Brown tries to explore this

Tribes in New South Wales are divided into two exogamous moieties named after two birds: eaglehawk
and crow
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Unity of sibling group

Brothers and sisters share a feeling of solidarity and are treated as a unit by outsiders

Unity of lineage group

A lineage refers to the descendants in a line traced either through male or female of a single
ancestor

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The generation principle

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There is a certain distance or tension between members of succeeding generations

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Members of alternate generations share easy and friendly relations

Structure and Function

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Brown substitutes ‘needs’ with necessary conditions of existence
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Structural analysis proceeds with assumptions

Necessary condition for survival of a society is minimal integration of its parts

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Function refers to those processes that maintain integration or solidarity

Social structure and conditions necessary for survival are irreducible

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Society is a reality in and of itself

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Structure and functions cannot be separated

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Comparative Sociology & Functional Unity

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Exponent of comparative sociology

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Advocates utility of scientific methods

Social anthropology should include methods of natural sciences

Social morphology and social physiology

Co-adaptation and Functional Unity

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Functional unity means all parts of society work together harmoniously

B. Malinowski vs Radcliffe-Brown – Functionalism

B. Malinowski:

By comparison to Radcliffe-Brown, it is Malinowski who claims the creation of a separate

‘school’, the ‘Functional School’.

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The aim of functional analysis for him (1926: 132) is to arrive at the explanation of anthropological
facts at all levels of development by their function, by the part they play within the integral system of

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culture.

He (1926: 132–3) assumes that in every civilization every custom, material object, ideas and belief

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fulfils some vital function, has some task to accomplish, represents an indispensable fact within a
working whole.

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Whereas Radcliffe-Brown begins with society and its necessary conditions of existence (i.e.,
integration), Malinowski’s starting point is the individual, who has a set of ‘basic’, or
‘biological’ needs that must be satisfied for its survival.
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It is because of the importance that Malinowski gives the individual that the term ‘psychological
functionalism’ is reserved for him, in comparison to Radcliffe-Brown’s approach which is called
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‘sociological functionalism’ because in this society is the key concept.

Because of this role of culture in satisfying biological needs that Malinowski’s functionalism is also
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known as ‘bio-cultural functionalism’.

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One more difference between Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski may be noted here.

A concept fundamental to Malinowski — the concept of culture — is a mere epiphenomena

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(secondary and incidental) for Radcliffe-Brown.

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He believes that the study of social structure (which for him is an observable entity) encompasses the
study of culture; therefore, there is no need to have a separate field to study culture.

Further, whilst social structure is concerned all about observations, what anthropologists see and
hear about the individual peoples, culture is in the minds of people, not amenable to observation in
the same way as social structure is.
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Radcliffe-Brown wants to make social anthropology a branch of natural science, which would be
possible when there is an empirically investigable subject matter.

British Functional Approach & Critique of Evolutionism

Both the founders of the British functional approach (Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski) were
vehemently critical of the nineteenth-century evolutionism.

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Radcliffe-Brown (1952) said that it was based on ‘conjectural history’, a term we used earlier, and not
‘authentic history’. It was ‘pseudo-historical’, thus devoid of a scientific value.

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For Malinowski (1944), classical evolutionism was a ‘limbo of conjectural reconstructions’.

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With the works of these scholars came a shift from: 1) Arm-chair anthropology to fieldwork-based
studies;

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2) The study of the origin and stages of evolution of society and its institutions (diachronic studies) to
society ‘here and now’ (synchronic studies).
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The Andaman Islanders (1922)
The Mother’s Brother in South Africa (1924)
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The Social Organization of Australian Tribes (1931)

On Joking Relationships (1940)
African Systems of Kinship and Marriage (1950) — Editor
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Structure and Function in Primitive Society (1952) — Posthumous

A Natural Science of Society (1957) — Posthumous
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Unit 1: Sociological Theory Part 6 (16/12/2025)

Structure Functionalist and Structuralist Thinkers

Radcliffe Brown

Euphoria A condition of social well-being where individuals experience Stable kinship relations
harmony, satisfaction, and emotional comfort due to smooth producing emotional

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functioning of social relations. security in a community.

Eunomia A state of normative order where social rules, institutions, and Well-regulated marriage

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obligations function properly, producing functional unity. rules maintaining social
integration.

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Dysphoria A condition of social discomfort or tension experienced by Anxiety during prolonged
individuals when social relations are disturbed or strained. conflict between kin
groups.

Dysnomia kr
A condition of normative breakdown, where rules fail,
institutions weaken, and functional unity collapses.
Breakdown of authority
leading to social disorder.
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Critique of Functionalism (Durkheim & Radcliffe-Brown)

Blurring of cause and function

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Functionalist analysis often confuses cause with function, leading to theoretical problems.
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Two major problems identified

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(1) Tautology

(2) Illegitimate teleology

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Illegitimate teleology explained

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Saying that division of labour exists because society needs integration is a teleological claim (explaining
present structures by future goals).

Such claims are not automatically false, because societies do function as systems.

However, they become illegitimate if no causal chain is shown.

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Need for causal documentation

To make teleology legitimate, one must show how needs actually produce structures.

Without this, explanations remain vague and theoretically empty.

Problem of tautology

Functional explanations often become circular: the system survives because its needs are met, and needs

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are assumed to be met because the system survives.

No independent criteria exist to test whether a system need is actually fulfilled.

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Such statements are true by definition, not by empirical verification.

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Overall critique

Functionalism risks becoming circular and unscientific unless it clearly distinguishes cause, function, and
criteria of integration.
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Talcott Parsons
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Full Name Talcott Parsons

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Birth 13 December 1902, Colorado Springs, USA

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Death 8 May 1979

Nationality American

Discipline Sociology

Academic Position Professor at Harvard University

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Intellectual Influences Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, Vilfredo Pareto, Alfred

Marshall

Theoretical Orientation Structural Functionalism

Major Work The Structure of Social Action (1937)

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Structural Society is a system of interrelated parts, each performing functions necessary
Functionalism for system stability and survival.

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Social System Society functions as a system governed by norms, values, roles, and institutions
Theory that regulate social action.

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AGIL Scheme Every social system must fulfill four functional imperatives: Adaptation, Goal
attainment, Integration, Latency.

Pattern Variables
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Dichotomous choices that guide social action (e.g., affectivity vs affective
neutrality).
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Theory of Social Human action is voluntary, norm-governed, and oriented toward shared values.
Action
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Value Consensus Social order is maintained through shared values and norms rather than
coercion.
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System Equilibrium Social systems tend toward equilibrium; disturbances are corrected through
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institutional adjustments.

Role Theory Individuals occupy social roles defined by expectations and norms.
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Latency / Pattern Cultural institutions (family, education, religion) maintain motivation and values.
Maintenance
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Let us see the basics!

Since he too is a structural functionalist, the broad framework of his thinking are same.

He simply takes a lot from Biology and Economics.

Biggest contribution is the Social Action Theory which he derives from several other theorists.
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Also called the General / voluntaristic theory of action.

General Equilibrium

Derived from Pareto’s model of equilibrium.

In The Social System (1951) Parsons argued that the crucial feature of societies, as of biological
organisms, is homeostasis (maintaining a stable state), and that their parts can be understood only in
terms of the whole.

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Supported the structural functional analysis: maintenance of the interrelated interaction units.

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His theories are similar to cybernetics and homeostasis.

Socialization and social control are the main mechanisms that allow the social system to maintain its

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equilibrium.

Modest amounts of individuality and deviance are accommodated, but more extreme forms must be met
by re-equilibrating mechanisms.
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Why Biology?
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●​ Homeostasis is borrowed from biology → society functions like an organism.

●​ Each part (family, education, economy) performs a function to maintain system stability.
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Why Economics?
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●​ General Equilibrium comes from Pareto → society seeks balance, not constant conflict.
●​ Disturbances are temporary and corrected through institutions.​
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Cybernetics (Norbert Wiener)

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●​ Society as a self-regulating system

●​ Feedback loops → social control & norm enforcement
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Talcott Parsons’ Theory of Pattern Variables

Pattern variables are dilemmas of choice faced by social actors while performing roles in society.
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Parsons introduced them to explain how social action is structured and regulated by norms and
values.

They indicate alternative ways of orienting action in social relationships.

Pattern variables help distinguish between traditional and modern societies.

The Five Pattern Variables (Paired Choices)

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1. Affectivity ↔ Affective Neutrality

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Affectivity means action guided by emotions, feelings, and personal attachment.

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Affective Neutrality means suppression of emotions in favor of objective role performance.

Typical of family, kinship, friendship.

Typical of bureaucracy, law, medicine, administration.

Example: A mother caring for a child.

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Example: A judge delivering a verdict impartially.

2. Self-Orientation ↔ Collectivity-Orientation

Self-orientation prioritizes personal interest, benefit, or success.

Collectivity-orientation prioritizes group or societal welfare.

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Common in market economy, competition, career mobility.

Common in family, caste, tribe, religious communities.

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Example: Choosing a job for high salary.

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Example: Sacrificing personal gain for family honour.

3. Universalism ↔ Particularism

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Universalism applies the same rules to everyone regardless of personal ties.
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Particularism applies rules based on personal relationships or status.

Dominant in modern legal and bureaucratic systems.

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Dominant in traditional societies and kinship systems.

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Example: Entrance exam based on merit.

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Example: Job given to a relative due to kinship.

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4. Achievement ↔ Ascription
Achievement evaluates individuals based on performance and accomplishments.
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Ascription evaluates individuals based on birth, age, gender, caste, or family background.
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Typical of industrial and modern societies.

Typical of traditional and hierarchical societies.

Example: Promotion based on performance appraisal.

Example: Status based on caste or royal lineage.

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5. Specificity ↔ Diffuseness
Specificity limits social relationships to clearly defined roles.

Diffuseness involves broad, multiple, and overlapping role expectations.

Common in formal organizations and professions.

Common in family and community life.

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Example: Doctor–patient relationship.

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Example: Father–son relationship.

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What is AGIL?

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AGIL is a functional schema proposed by Talcott Parsons to explain how any social system survives
and remains stable.
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Every social system must perform four functional imperatives.

These functions are: Adaptation (A), Goal Attainment (G), Integration (I), Latency/Pattern
Maintenance (L).

Failure of any one function threatens system stability.

AGIL Functions, Systems, and Institutions

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A – Adaptation Securing and Behavioral Economy, industry,
distributing resources; Organism labour, technology

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adjusting to
environment

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G – Goal Attainment Defining goals and Personality Polity, government,
mobilizing resources System state, administration
to achieve them

I – Integration kr
Coordinating parts of Social System Law, religion,
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the system; community, kinship
maintaining solidarity
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L – Latency (Pattern Creating, preserving, Cultural System Family, education,

Maintenance) and transmitting religion, media
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values and norms

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Explanation of Each AGIL Function with Institutions

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A. Adaptation

Adaptation refers to how a system adjusts to its environment and secures material resources.
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The economic institution performs this function.

Production, distribution, employment, and technology are key mechanisms.

Example:

●​ Capitalist economy allocating resources through markets​

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G. Goal Attainment (G)

Goal attainment involves setting collective goals and ensuring they are achieved.

The political system performs this function.

Government prioritizes goals like security, development, welfare.

Example:

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●​ Five-year plans, public policies​

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I. Integration

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Integration ensures coordination among different parts of society.

It controls conflict and maintains social order.

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Law, religion, customs, and moral rules play a key role.
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Example:

●​ Legal system resolving disputes​

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Latency / Pattern Maintenance

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Latency refers to maintaining and transmitting core values and norms.

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Family and education socialize individuals.

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Religion provides meaning and moral orientation.

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Example:
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●​ Family teaching discipline​

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Parsons Theory of Social Action

Meaning of Social Social action refers to action performed by an actor that is goal-oriented,
Action normatively regulated, and value-guided, taking place within a social
system.

Theoretical Nature Parsons’ theory is known as Voluntaristic Theory of Action because it

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rejects both pure determinism and pure rational choice.

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Actor An actor is an individual or collective unit capable of making choices within

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structural constraints.

Goal (End)
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Every action is oriented towards a goal that the actor seeks to achieve.
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Normative Action is regulated by norms, rules, and values shared by society.
Regulation
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Why “Voluntaristic”? Because the actor has choice and agency, but within normative and
structural limits.
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Rejection of Utilitarianism Rejects the idea that humans act only to maximize self-interest.
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Central Role of Norms & Norms and values regulate and guide action.
Values

Actor Actor is a meaningful, norm-oriented decision-maker.

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Goal Orientation Action is oriented toward goals, not random behaviour.

Effort & Choice Actor invests effort and makes choices among alternatives.

Social Order Social order emerges through shared values and norms, not force.

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Type of Social Action Example

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Instrumental Action Action oriented toward efficient Studying with a timetable to clear an
achievement of goals using exam.
appropriate means.
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Expressive Action Action driven by emotional Celebrating a festival or family gathering.

satisfaction rather than efficiency.

Moral / Normative Action guided by moral norms Returning a lost wallet due to honesty.
Action and obligations.

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Motivational Orientations (Need-Dispositions)

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Cognitive Desire to understand and interpret A student learning exam patterns before
Orientation the situation logically and factually. preparation.

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Cathectic Emotional attachment or affective Emotional bond between parents and
Orientation involvement with objects or children.
persons.

Evaluative kr
Judging situations and alternatives Choosing honesty over cheating in an
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Orientation using norms and values. exam.

Type of Value Example

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Orientation

Cognitive Value Concerned with knowledge, truth, and A scientist testing a hypothesis
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Orientation understanding of reality. It evaluates using empirical data.

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action in terms of factual correctness and

logical coherence.
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Appreciative / Focuses on beauty, style, harmony, and Enjoying music or dance for
Aesthetic Value emotional satisfaction rather than truth pleasure.
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Orientation or morality.

Moral Value Oriented toward norms, obligations, and Refusing bribery despite personal
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Orientation judgments of right and wrong guiding loss.

responsible action.
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Talcott Parsons – Sick Role Theory

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Concept of Sick Role The sick role is a socially recognized role that exempts a sick person from
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normal social obligations, provided certain conditions are fulfilled.

Theoretical Developed within structural functionalism to explain how illness is managed

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Background to maintain social equilibrium.

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View of Illness Illness is seen as a form of social deviance that disrupts normal functioning of
society.
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Purpose of Sick Role To control deviance and ensure recovery so that the individual can return to
normal roles.
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Rights of the Sick Person

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Exemption from normal social Sick person is not expected to perform usual

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roles duties.

Lack of responsibility for Individual is not blamed for being ill.

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illness

Obligations of the Sick Person

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Sick person must desire recovery.
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Obligation to seek competent help Must consult a qualified medical
professional.
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Worker with Excused from work, not

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fever blamed, but must consult

doctor and recover.
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Hospitalized Temporarily relieved from

patient family/work roles.
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Talcott Parsons – Stages of Evolution of Society

Primitive Societies Simple, undifferentiated societies Kinship-based organization,

where social roles and institutions collective conscience, low
are minimally specialized. specialization
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Intermediate / Societies showing partial Emergence of political authority,

archaic Societies differentiation of institutions such stratification
as religion, polity, and economy.

Modern Societies Highly differentiated societies with Bureaucracy, universalistic norms,

autonomous institutions performing achievement-based roles
specialized functions.

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Evolutionary Shift (Process Explanation)

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Differentiation Separation of structures to perform specialized functions.

Adaptive Upgrading Improved capacity to handle complex environments.

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Inclusion Incorporation of previously excluded groups.

Generalization
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Shift from particularistic to universalistic values.
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Major Definitions by Parsons –

Major definitions by Parsons:

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1) Definition of society: “a relatively self-sufficient collectivity the members of which are able to
satisfy all their individual and collective needs and to live entirely within its framework”
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In fact, as we saw earlier, the cultural system stood at the top of Parsons’s action system, and
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Parsons (1966) labeled himself a “cultural determinist.”

Definition of culture, “culture is seen as a patterned, ordered system of symbols that are objects of
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orientation to actors, internalized aspects of the personality system, and institutionalized patterns”

Social Systems: A social system consists in a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other
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in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who are motivated in
terms of a tendency to the “optimization of gratification” and whose relation to their situations,
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including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared
symbols.
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Parsons did not take interaction as his fundamental unit in the study of the social system. Rather, he
used the status-role complex as the basic unit of the system.

This is neither an aspect of actors nor an aspect of interaction but rather a structural component of the
social system.

Status refers to a structural position within the social system, and

role is what the actor does in such a position, seen in the context of its functional significance for the

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larger system.

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1937 – The Structure of Social Action
1951 – The Social System

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1955 – Family, Socialization and Interaction Process (with Robert F. Bales)
1959 – Structure and Process in Modern Societies
1960 – Social Structure and Personality

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1964 – Towards a General Theory of Action
1966 – Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives
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1970 – Politics and Social Structure
1971 – The System of Modern Societies
1977 – Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory
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1978 – Action Theory and the Human Condition

Translated: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism – 1930

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Translated: The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation – 1947

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Unit 1: Sociological Theory Part 7 (18/12/2025)

Robert King Merton

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Full Name Robert King Merton

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Birth July 4, 1910, Philadelphia, USA

Death

Original Name kr
February 23, 2003

Meyer Robert Schkolnick

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Nationality American
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Intellectual Tradition Structural Functionalism (critical/modified)

Education PhD, Harvard University

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Influenced By Talcott Parsons, Pitirim Sorokin

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Major Academic Position Professor at Columbia University

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Known For Middle-range theory, anomie, deviance, science studies

Major Awards National Medal of Science (1994)

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Theory of Middle Advocated theories that lie between grand theory and empirical research,
Range making sociology more testable and practical.

Manifest and Latent Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences; latent
Functions functions are unintended and unrecognized.
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Dysfunctions Some social structures can have negative consequences for society.

Anomie Theory Deviance results from a disjunction between culturally prescribed goals and
(Strain Theory) socially structured means.

Modes of Individual Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion.

Adaptation

Self-Fulfilling A false definition of a situation that evokes behavior making the false belief

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Prophecy come true.

Reference Group Individuals evaluate themselves and form attitudes based on reference

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Theory groups.

Role Set A single social status involves multiple role relationships.

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Role Strain Difficulty in fulfilling multiple expectations of a single role.

Bureaucratic
Structure and
Personality
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Bureaucratic rules can lead to rigidity and goal displacement.
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Matthew Effect Recognition and rewards accumulate to already well-known scientists.
(Sociology of
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Science)

Norms of Science Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organized Skepticism.

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(CUDOS)
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Robert K. Merton – Types of Functions

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1. Manifest Functions
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Definition Manifest functions are intended, conscious, and recognized consequences of

social institutions or actions.
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Nature Planned and officially stated outcomes.

Visibility Clearly visible and acknowledged by participants.

Role in Help maintain social order and stability.

Society
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Example 1 The manifest function of education is to impart knowledge and skills.

Example 2 The manifest function of law is maintaining social order.

2. Latent Functions

Definition Latent functions are unintended, unconscious, and unrecognized consequences

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of social action or institutions.

Nature Not planned or officially stated.

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Visibility Often discovered only through sociological analysis.

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Role in May still contribute to social integration or cohesion.
Society

Example 1

Example 2 kr
Schools create peer networks and friendships.

Religious rituals strengthen group solidarity beyond worship.

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C
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(Hopi rain dance)

3. Dysfunctions
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Definition Dysfunctions are negative consequences of social structures that

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undermine social stability or adjustment.

Nature Can be intended or unintended.

Relation to Functionalism Introduced by Merton to correct the overly positive bias of classical
functionalism.

Impact Creates tension, inequality, or conflict.

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Example 1 Education may reinforce class inequality.

Example 2 Bureaucracy leads to red-tapism and rigidity.

A. Manifest Dysfunctions

Meaning Manifest dysfunctions are intended and recognized negative consequences of

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a social structure or action.

Nature Planned or openly acknowledged harmful outcomes.

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Awareness Actors are aware that the outcome is harmful.

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Analytical Status Explicitly discussed and often debated in public discourse.

Example 1 War deliberately causes destruction and loss of life.

Example 2

Example 3
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Industrial pollution knowingly damages environment and health.

High-stakes exams intentionally create elimination and failure.

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B. Latent Dysfunctions

Meaning Latent dysfunctions are unintended and unrecognized negative

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consequences of social structures or actions.

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Nature Not planned; often discovered through sociological analysis.

Awareness Actors are usually unaware of these harmful effects.

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Analytical Status Revealed only through critical sociological inquiry.

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Example 1 Education unintentionally reinforces class inequality.

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Example 2 Bureaucracy produces alienation and rigidity unintentionally.

Example 3 Urbanization leads to social isolation.

4. Non-Functions
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Definition Non-functions are consequences that are irrelevant to the system and have
no significant effect on social order.

Nature Neither functional nor dysfunctional.

Analytical Purpose Helps avoid assuming that everything in society has a function.

Sociological Encourages empirical verification rather than assumption.

Importance

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Example 1 Fashion choices like tie color have no systemic function.

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Example 2 Decorative elements in buildings unrelated to use.

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Robert K. Merton – Modes of Adaptation

Mode of Cultural Institutiona Explanation Example

Adaptation

Conformity
Goals

Accepted
l Means

Accepted
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Individuals accept both Studying hard to get a job
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socially approved goals and and earn success.
legitimate means to achieve
them. This is the most
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common and stable mode.

Innovation Accepted Rejected Goals are accepted, but Smuggling or fraud to gain
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legitimate means are wealth.

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rejected and replaced by

illegitimate means.
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Ritualism Rejected Accepted Goals are abandoned or A clerk mechanically

scaled down, but institutional following rules without
means are rigidly followed. ambition.
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Retreatism Rejected Rejected Both goals and means are Drug addicts, chronic
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rejected, leading to alcoholics.

withdrawal from society.

Rebellion Rejected & Rejected & Existing goals and means Revolutionary movements,
Replaced Replaced are rejected and new ones radical political groups.
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are proposed to replace

them.

Mode Goals Means

Conformity ✔ Accept ✔ Accept

Innovation ✔ Accept ✖ Reject

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Ritualism ✖ Reject ✔ Accept

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Retreatism ✖ Reject ✖ Reject

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Rebellion ✖ Replace ✖ Replace

Robert K. Merton – Strain Theory of Deviance & Anomie

A. Concept of Anomie
kr
ha
Meaning of Anomie Anomie refers to a condition where there is a disjunction between
culturally prescribed goals and socially structured means.
C

Source Borrowed from Durkheim but redefined in structural terms.

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Nature Structural condition, not individual pathology.

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Core Problem Society emphasizes success goals more than legitimate means.

Result Creates pressure or strain on individuals.

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A

B. Strain Theory of Deviance

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Meaning of Strain Strain theory explains deviance as a result of structural strain produced by
Theory anomie.

Central Argument When legitimate means are blocked, individuals adapt in different ways.

Focus Relationship between social structure and deviance.

Nature of Deviance Deviance is a normal response to unequal opportunity structures.

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Level of Analysis Macro-structural (society) influencing micro behavior (individual).

Example (General) Crime emerging from blocked economic opportunities.

C. Cultural Goals and Institutional Means

Cultural Socially approved Becoming rich

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Goals aspirations (e.g., wealth,
success).

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Institutional Legitimate, socially Education, hard
Means approved ways to work

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achieve goals.

D. Link between Anomie and Deviance

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Anomie creates strain by widening the gap between goals and means.
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Strain leads individuals to adopt deviant adaptations.

Deviance is socially produced, not biologically caused.

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Robert K. Merton – CUDOS Framework (Norms of Science)

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CUDOS Norm Example

C – Communism Scientific knowledge is a common Publishing research in open

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(Communalism) property of the scientific community and journals; sharing data with peers.
must be shared openly, not privately
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owned.
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U – Universalism Scientific claims are evaluated by A paper is judged on

impersonal, universal criteria, methodology, not on the author’s
independent of the scientist’s nationality, identity.
caste, gender, or status.
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D – Disinterestedness Scientists should act for the advancement Declaring conflicts of interest in
of knowledge, not for personal gain, profit, research.
or prestige.

O – Organized All scientific claims must be systematically Peer review, replication of

Skepticism questioned and critically examined studies.
before acceptance.

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Robert K. Merton – Meaning of Serendipity and Context

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A. Meaning of Serendipity (Merton)

Term Used By Robert K. Merton (in sociology of science)

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Meaning of Serendipity Serendipity refers to the accidental discovery of significant

findings while searching for something else, combined with
theoretical insight.

Nature Not pure accident; requires a prepared and theoretically

informed mind.

Sociological Relevance Explains how many scientific discoveries emerge outside

planned research paths.

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B. Serendipity Pattern (Merton’s Analytical Context)

Serendipity Pattern A pattern where an unanticipated, anomalous, and strategic datum

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leads to new theory.

Role in Theory Building Helps move from empirical anomalies to theoretical innovation.

Link with Middle-Range

Theory
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Supports development of middle-range theories rather than grand
theories.
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Methodological Importance Shows interaction between data and theory.
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Merton’s Functional postulates

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Merton’s functional postulates refer to the basic assumptions used in functional analysis
about how social structures relate to society.
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These postulates guide sociologists in examining whether a social structure is functional,

dysfunctional, or irrelevant for the social system.
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1. Postulate of Functional Unity of Society

Meaning The postulate of functional unity assumes that all Religion integrating society.
parts of society work together harmoniously to
maintain social stability.
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Merton’s Critique Merton argued that modern societies are complex

and plural, and not all parts promote unity.

Revised View Social structures may be functional for some Caste system benefits upper
groups and dysfunctional for others. castes but harms lower
castes.

2. Postulate of Universal Functionalism

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Meaning This postulate assumes that all social institutions Family socializing children.
and practices have positive functions for society.

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Merton’s Critique Merton rejected this view, stating that social structures
can also be dysfunctional.

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Revised View Institutions can have functions, dysfunctions, and Education creating inequality
non-functions. (dysfunction).

3. Postulate of Indispensability kr
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Meaning This postulate claims that certain social Religion seen as necessary for
institutions are indispensable for society’s morality.
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survival.

Merton’s Critique Merton argued that functional alternatives can

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exist.
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Revised View No single institution is absolutely necessary; Schools replacing family in

substitutes are possible. socialization.
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A

1936 – Puritanism, Pietism, and Science

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1946 – Mass Persuasion: The Social Psychology of a War Bond Drive

1949 – Social Theory and Social Structure
1956 – The Focused Interview (with Marjorie Fiske & Patricia L. Kendall)
1957 – The Freedom to Read: Perspective and Program
1962 – The Sociology of Science
1965 – On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript
1967 – On Theoretical Sociology
1972 – Varieties of Political Expression in Sociology
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1976 – Sociological Ambivalence and Other Essays

1978 – Criminology
1993 – The Role Set
1993 – On the Shoulders of Giants: The Post-Italianate Edition
1996 – On Social Structure and Science
2003 – The Student-Physician
2004 – The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity (with Elinor Barber)

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Unit 1: Sociological Theory Part 8 (18/12/2025)

Claude Levi Strauss

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Full Name Claude Lévi-Strauss

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Birth 28 November 1908, Brussels, Belgium

Death

Nationality kr
30 October 2009, Paris, France

French
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Discipline Social Anthropology / Sociology
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Intellectual Structuralism
Tradition
Also known as father of Structural Anthropology
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Education Philosophy (University of Paris – Sorbonne)

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Academic Professor, Collège de France

Positions
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Influences Saussure (linguistics), Durkheim, Mauss

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Known For Structural anthropology, kinship, myths

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Major Honor Member, Académie Française (1973)

Field works in: Mato Grosso and the Amazon Rainforest, studied the Guaycuru and Bororó
Indian tribes, Nambikwara and Tupi-Kawahib societies.
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B. Most Important Theories & Concepts of Claude Lévi-Strauss

Structuralism Culture is governed by deep, underlying structures of the human

mind rather than surface customs.

Binary Oppositions Human thought organizes meaning through oppositions (e.g.,

raw/cooked, nature/culture).

Theory of Kinship (Alliance Kinship systems are systems of exchange of women between groups,
Theory) not just descent.

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Incest Taboo The incest taboo is a universal cultural rule marking the shift from

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nature to culture.

Elementary Structures of Early societies follow formal rules of marriage exchange

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Kinship (restricted/generalized exchange).

Myth Analysis (Structural Myths across cultures share similar structures despite different content.
Study of Myths)

Mythemes kr
Myths are composed of basic units called mythemes, like phonemes in
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language.

Nature vs Culture Central analytical distinction explaining social rules and symbols.
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Cold and Hot Societies Cold societies resist change; hot societies embrace historical change.

Unconscious Structures Social life is shaped by unconscious mental structures.

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Important Theories / Concepts in The Savage Mind

Critique of Primitive vs No qualitative difference between primitive and modern thinking.

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Modern Mind

Bricolage Primitive mind works like a bricoleur, using available materials

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creatively.
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Engineer vs Bricoleur Modern science = engineer; primitive science = bricoleur.

Classification Systems Tribal societies classify plants, animals, and relations systematically.

Binary Logic in Thought Thought operates through oppositions even in “primitive” societies.
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Claude Lévi-Strauss – Mythologiques & Universal Man

Lévi-Strauss was not interested in producing a text (i.e., a monograph) on a particular culture, but a
text that addressed the understanding of the “Universal Man” rather than the particular man.

Between 1964 and 1971 were published Lévi-Strauss’s magnum opus, the four volume Mythologiques
series. In total, these volumes, running into two thousand pages, analyse 813 myths and their more
than one thousand versions.

Raw and the Cooked analyses myths from South America, particularly central and eastern Brazil.

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The second volume, From Honey to Ashes, is also concerned with South America, but deals with myths

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both from the south and the north.

The Origin of Table Manners begins with a myth that is South American, but from further north.

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The final volume, The Naked Man, is entirely North American. The interesting fact Lévi-Strauss finds is
that the “most apparent similarities between myths are found between the regions of the New World that
are geographically most distant.”

kr
Beginning with the mythology of central Brazil and then moving out to other geographical areas, and then
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returning to Brazil, Lévi-Strauss realises that “depending upon the case, the myths of neighbouring
peoples coincide, partially overlap, answer, or contradict one another.”
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🔹 Why “Universal Man”?

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●​ Lévi-Strauss was not doing ethnographic description of one society

●​ He was uncovering deep mental structures common to all humans
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●​ Myth = language through which the human mind thinks in binaries

🔹 Mythologiques Project – Core Logic

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●​ Myths are not isolated stories

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●​ They form a system of transformations

●​ Meaning lies in relations between myths, not in one myth alone
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Claude Lévi-Strauss – Theory of the Culinary Triangle

Core Idea Cooking practices express deep cultural structures through symbolic
oppositions.

Key Assumption Food is not just biological; it is culturally coded.

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kr
ha
C
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The Three Poles of the Culinary Triangle

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Raw Food in its natural, Nature Raw fruits, raw

uncooked state. meat
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Cooked Food transformed by Culture Boiled rice,

cultural means cooked meat
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(especially fire).

Rotten Food transformed Nature acting Fermented or

naturally without human on culture spoiled food
intervention.
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On Totemism
Lévi-Strauss’s Totemism is not a distinct institution but a mode of classification.
Position

Critique of Earlier Rejects Durkheim’s idea of totemism as the origin of religion.

Views

Core Function Helps societies classify social groups using natural differences.

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Nature–Culture Animals/plants are used symbolically to think about social relations.
Link

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Key Work Totemism (1962)

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Structural Insight Totemism reflects structure of the human mind, not primitive belief.

He says that totemism was “invented” and became one of the most favourite anthropological subjects to

kr
be investigated with an aim to find its origins and varieties.
ha
He also criticises the functional views of totemism; for instance, Durkheim’s explanation that totemism
binds people in a “moral community” called the church,

or Malinowski’s idea that the Trobrianders have totems because they are of utilitarian value, for they
C

provide food to people.

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Origin of the Term Lévi-Strauss notes that the word totem comes from the Ojibwa language of the
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‘Totem’ Algonquian family in North America.

Totemic Group Members sharing the same totem form a totemic group.
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Nature of Totemic Totemism is not primarily about worship but about classification and
Belief differentiation.
A

Core Argument of Totemic phenomena are modes of classification, not primitive religion.
©

Lévi-Strauss

Structural Logic Natural differences between plants and animals are used to represent social
differences between clans.

Relation to Kinship Totemism helps organize kinship relations and social order.
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Food Taboos Food taboos are symbolic rules expressing social distinctions, not irrational
beliefs.

Key Conclusion Totemism is a symbolic system of thought, similar to language.

Claude Lévi-Strauss – Analysis of Myth, Bricoleur & Bricolage

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A. Lévi-Strauss: Analysis of Myth

Meaning of Myth Myths are not irrational stories but systems of communication expressing

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deep structures of the human mind.

Focus of Analysis Lévi-Strauss analyses relations between elements of myths, not their

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surface content.

Basic Unit The basic unit of myth is the mytheme, similar to phoneme in language.

Structural Principle
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Myths are structured around binary oppositions.
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Examples of Binary Nature / Culture, Raw / Cooked, Life / Death.
Oppositions
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Function of Myth Myths attempt to resolve contradictions in human thought symbolically.

Universality Similar mythic structures appear across cultures, showing a universal

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human mind.
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B. Concept of the Bricoleur

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Meaning of A bricoleur is a thinker who works with what is already available.

Bricoleur
A

Contrast Opposed to the modern scientist or engineer who creates tools for specific purposes.
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Role in Myth Myth-makers are bricoleurs who recombine existing symbols and ideas.

Cognitive Style Represents concrete logic rather than abstract logic.

Anthropological So-called “primitive” thinking is not inferior, only different.

Meaning
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C. Concept of Bricolage

Meaning of Bricolage is the process of constructing meaning using pre-existing cultural

Bricolage materials.

Domain Found in myth, religion, kinship, totemism, and ritual.

Method Rearrangement and recombination of signs and symbols.

Relation to Myth Myths are products of bricolage.

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Structural Logic Follows rules of structure, not randomness.

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Claude Lévi-Strauss: Social Structure – Three Distinctions

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1. Observation vs Experimentation on Models

Observation on
models kr
Studying social reality as it is given, by observing empirical data and constructing
models from it.
ha
Experimentation on Manipulating or transforming models theoretically to see possible variations and
models hidden relations.
C

Example Studying marriage rules as observed → then altering combinations to see

structural logic.
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2. Conscious vs Unconscious Character of Models

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Conscious models Models that people know and explicitly explain, such as customs or stated
rules.
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Unconscious models Deep structures not consciously known to actors but governing social life.
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Lévi-Strauss’s emphasis True social structure lies at the unconscious level, similar to language
grammar.
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Example Kinship rules followed without knowing their logical structure.

3. Mechanical vs Statistical Models

Mechanical models Models where relations are fixed, exact, and rule-bound.
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Statistical models Models based on probability, frequency, and variation.

Lévi-Strauss’s preference Prefers mechanical models for uncovering deep structural logic.

Example Binary oppositions in myths (raw/cooked).

1949 – Les Structures élémentaires de la parenté​

→ The Elementary Structures of Kinship

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1955 – Tristes Tropiques

1958 – Anthropologie structurale​

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→ Structural Anthropology

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1962 – La Pensée sauvage​
→ The Savage Mind

1964 – Mythologiques I: Le Cru et le Cuit​

kr
→ Mythologiques, Vol. 1: The Raw and the Cooked
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1966 – Mythologiques II: Du miel aux cendres​
→ Mythologiques, Vol. 2: From Honey to Ashes

1968 – Mythologiques III: L’Origine des manières de table​

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→ Mythologiques, Vol. 3: The Origin of Table Manners

1971 – Mythologiques IV: L’Homme nu​

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→ Mythologiques, Vol. 4: The Naked Man

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1973 – Anthropologie structurale deux​

→ Structural Anthropology, Vol. 2
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A
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