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However, while contract for laying of pipeline works are awarded this should include a clause on the
defect liability provisions for making the defect good during the defect liability period or the entire
contract period whichever is more as per the contract model (EPC/BOT, etc.) including retaining a
security bond equivalent to a certain percentage of the tender value (usually 1% to 10% relevant to
the contract value) for the agreed performance guarantee during the entire liability period.
The following check list for drafting specifications for Manufacture, Supply, Laying, Jointing, Testing
and commissioning of pipelines for procurement through a single agency is as follows. Judicious
selection of items which cover cross country or city installations is required.
Check List for Specifications for Manufacture, Supply, Laying, Jointing, Testing and
Commissioning Pipelines
PART I Procurement
Section 1 - General
1.1 Scope of work
1.2 Definitions of client, contractor, engineer etc.
1.3 Drawings and documents referred to
1.4 Reference Standards
1.5 Penal clauses for failure to meet the time schedule & performance standards and requirements.
1.6 Basis for Prices; to include all pipes, fittings, valves, jointing materials, including labour, cost of
factory testing, lining, coating, marking and all other incidental expenses for manufacture,
transportation, insurance and delivery at site. (any exclusions/ inclusions may be clearly specified)
Section 2 - Detailed Requirements - Pipes
2.1 Material for pipes (standards for materials), manufacturing operations, testing and inspection
2.2 Diameter of pipe
2.3 Wall thickness/ other dimensions of the pipe
2.4 Class of pipe
2.5 Laying length
2.6 Pipe ends-flanged-socket/ spigot/plain
2.7 Special pipe lengths and special fittings
2.8 Working Pressures
2.9 Pipe lining and coating both for buried and exposed pipes
Section 3 - Transportation and delivery at site
3.1 Type of trucks used for transportation-length / weight
3.2 Handling equipment for loading and unloading
Section 4 - Field Joints for Pipes
4.1 Requirements for machined couplings/ ends
4.2 Flanged/joints, pitch circle, blots type, gasket quality
4.3 Welded joints-runs-thickness

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PART II INSTALLATION
Section 1 - Instruction to Bidders
1.1 Procedure for invitation of bids
1.2 Instructions to bidders
1.3 Bidders proposal to include plan/ programme for construction
1.4 Agreement and performance bonds
Section 2 - General Specifications
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Scope of Work
2.3 Payment conditions
2.4 Statutory Requirements- Payment of wages-Policy-Environment control-safety
2.5 Personnel
Section 3 - Detailed Specifications
3.1 Time Schedule
3.2 Construction facilities - Right of way - storage space - interference with other services
3.3 Work and materials
3.4 Concrete
3.5 Excavation - Bracing of excavation - Safety to public - Disposal of excess material from excavation
3.6 Maintenance, removal and reconstruction of other interfering facilities
3.7 Safeguarding of excavations and protection of property
3.8 Backfill
3.9 Resurfacing of roads within city and outside
Section 4 - Pipes
4.1 Approval of drawings for laying
4.2 Distribution along trench
4.3 Preparation of bedding
4.4 Lowering and laying
4.5 Jointing

11.2 Cast Iron Pipes

11.2.1 General
Cast iron (CI) pressure pipes may be classified in two categories, i.e., vertically cast iron (IS:1537-
1976, reaffirmed 2020) and centrifugally cast (spun) iron (IS:1536-2001, reaffirmed 2021) pipes for
water and sewage. Vertically cast iron has been largely superseded by centrifugally cast (spun) iron
up to a diameter ranging from 80 mm to 1050 mm for socket and spigot pipes (class LA, A, and B)
and flanged pipes with screwed flanges (Class B). Though the vertically cast iron pipe is heavy in

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weight, low in tensile strength, and liable to defects of inner surface, it is widely used because of its
good lasting qualities.

Cast Iron pipes and fittings are being manufactured in this country for several years. Due to its
strength and corrosion resistance, CI pipes can be used in corrosive soils and for waters of slightly
aggressive character. It is preferable to have coating inside and outside of the pipe.

Vertically cast iron pipes are manufactured by vertical casting in sand moulds. The metal used for
the manufacture of this pipe is not less than grade 15. The pipes shall be stripped with all precautions
necessary to avoid wrapping or shrinking defects. The pipes shall be such that they could be cut,
drilled, or machined. Cast iron flanged pipes and fittings are usually cast in the larger diameters.
Smaller sizes have loose flanges screwed on the ends of double spigot-spun pipe.

The method of cast iron pipe production used universally today is to form pipes by spinning or
centrifugal action. Compared with vertical casting in sand moulds, the spun process results in faster
production, longer pipes with vastly improved metal qualities, smoother inner surface and reduced
thickness and consequent lightweight.

Centrifugally cast iron pipes are available in diameters from 80 mm to 1050 mm and are covered with
protective coatings. Pipes are supplied in 3.66 m and 5.5 m lengths and a variety of joints are
available including socket and spigot and flanged joints. The CI pipes have been classified as LA, A,
and B according to their thickness. Class LA pipes have been taken as the basis for evolving the
series of pipes. Class A allows a 10% increase in thickness over class LA. Class B allows a 20%
increase in thickness over class LA. For vertically cast pipes, Class LA has not been taken as
standard. For special uses, Classes C, D, E, etc. may be derived after allowing corresponding
increases of thickness of 30, 40, 50 per cent, etc., over Class LA.

When the pipes are to be used for conveying potable water, the inside coating shall not contain any
constituent soluble in water or any ingredient which could impart any taste or odour or impart health
hazard.

Experiments in centrifugal casting of iron pipes were started in 1914 by a French Engineer which
ultimately resulted in the commercial production of spun pipes. Spun pipes are about three-fourths
of the weight of vertically cast pipes of the same class. The greater tensile strength of the spun iron
is due to close grain allowing use of thinner wall than for that of a vertically cast iron pipe of equal
length. It is possible by this process to increase the length of the pipe whilst a further advantage lies
in the smoothness of the inner surface.

11.2.2 Laying and Jointing

[Link] Laying
Before laying the pipes, a detailed map of the area showing the alignment, sluice valves, scour
valves, air valves, and fire hydrants along with the existing intercepting sewers, telephone and electric
cables, and gas pipes will have to be studied. Care should be taken to avoid damage to the existing
sewer, telephone and electric cables, and gas pipes. The pipeline may be laid on the side of the
street where the population is dense. Pipes are laid underground with a minimum cover of 1 metre
on the top of the pipe.

Laying of pipes for water supply system is generally governed by respective Indian Standards (IS)
as well as the regulations laid down by the Municipalities and Corporations in the States/UTs.

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These regulations are intended to ensure proper laying of pipes giving due consideration to economy
and safety of workers engaged in laying.

The pipes shall be straight. When rolled along two gantries separated by approximately two-thirds
the length of the pipe to be checked, the maximum deviation from a straight line (in mm) shall not be
greater than 1.25 times the length (in metres) of the pipes.

Excavation may be done by hand or by machine. The trench shall be so dug that the pipe may be
laid to the required gradient and at the required depth. When the pipeline is under a roadway, a
minimum cover of 1.0 m is recommended for adoption, but it may be modified to suit local conditions
by taking necessary precautions. However, the structural strength of the pipe, based on dead load
and live load over the pipe, should also be analysed. The trench shall be so braced and drained that
the workmen may work therein safely and efficiently. The discharge of the trench dewatering pumps
shall be conveyed either to drainage channels or to natural drains and shall not be allowed to be
spread in the vicinity of the worksite.

The width of the trench at bottom between faces of sheeting shall be such as to provide not less than
200 mm clearance on either side of the pipe, except where rock excavation is involved. Additional
width shall be provided at positions of sockets and flanges for jointing. Depths of pits at such places
shall also be sufficient to permit finishing of joints.

Ledge rock, boulders, and large stones shall be removed to provide a clearance of at least 150 mm
below and on each side of pipes in case of valves and fillings for pipes 600 mm in diameter or less,
and 200 mm for pipes larger than 600 mm in diameter.

While unloading, pipes shall not be thrown down, but may be carefully unloaded on inclined timber
skids. Pipes shall not be dragged over other pipes and along concrete and similar pavements to avoid
damage to pipes.

The pipes and fittings shall be inspected for defects and be rung with a light hammer, preferably while
suspended, to detect cracks. Smearing the outside with chalk dust helps in the location of cracks. If
doubt persists, further confirmation may be obtained by pouring a little kerosene on the inside of the
pipe at the suspected spot. If a crack is present, the kerosene seeps through and shows on the outer
surface. The pipe should be properly inspected on the site. Any pipe found unsuitable before and
after laying, shall be rejected.
[Link] Jointing
Several types of joints such as rubber gasket joint known as Tyton joint, mechanical joint known as
screw gland joint, and conventional joint known as lead joint are used. Joints are classified into the
following three categories depending upon their capacity for movement.

a) Rigid joints
Rigid joints are those that allow no movement at all and comprise of flanged, welded and turned, and
bored joints. Flanged joints require perfect alignment and close fittings are frequently used where a
longitudinal thrust must be taken such as at the valves and meters. The gaskets used between
flanges of pipes shall be of compressed fibre board or natural or synthetic rubber. Welded joints
produce a continuous line of pipes with the advantage that interior and exterior coatings can be made
properly and are not subsequently disrupted by the movement of joints.

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b) Semi rigid joints

Semi rigid joint is represented by a spigot and socket with a caulked lead joint. A semi rigid joint
allows partial movement due to vibration, etc. The socketed end of the pipe should be kept against
the flow of water and the spigot end of the other pipe is inserted into this socket. A twisted spun yarn
is filled into this gap and it is then adjusted by the yarning tool and is then caulked well. A rope is then
placed at the outer end of the socket and is made a tight fit by applying wet clay, leaving two holes
for the escape of the entrapped air inside. The rope is taken out and molten lead is poured into the
annular space by means of a funnel. The clay is then removed and the lead is caulked with a caulking
tool.

Lead wool may be used in wet conditions. Lead covered yarn is of great use in repair work, since the
leaded yarn caulked into place will keep back water under very low pressure while the joint is being
made. Alternate yarn should also be explored and replaced with lead covered yarn in water supply
due to adverse health impact on human being. Yarning or packing material shall also be considered
for a) spun yarn, b) moulded or tubular natural or synthetic rubber rings, c) asbestos rope, or d)
treated paper rope. These may be decided by the authority taking into consideration the quality of
water.

c) Flexible joints
Flexible joints are used where rigidity is undesirable such as with filling of granular medium and when
two sections cannot be welded. They comprise mainly mechanical and rubber ring joints or Tyton
joints which permit some degree of deflection at each joint and are therefore able to stand vibration
and movement. In rubber jointing, a special type of rubber gaskets is used to connect cast iron pipes
which are cast with a special type of spigot and socket in the groove, the spigot end being lubricated
with grease and slipped into the socket by means of a jack used on the other end. The working
conditions of absence of light, presence of water, and relatively cool uniform temperature are all
conducive to the preservation of rubber and consequently, this type of joint is expected to last as long
as the pipes. Hence, rubber jointing is preferred to lead jointing.
[Link] Fittings
All pipes, fittings, valves, and hydrants shall be carefully lowered into the trench by means of derrick,
ropes, chain pulley blocks or other suitable tools and equipment depending on the weight and length
of the pipes to prevent damage to pipe materials and protective coatings and linings.

All lumps, blisters and excess coating material shall be removed from socket and spigot end of each
pipe and outside of the spigot and inside of the socket shall be wire-brushed and wiped clean and
dry and free from oil and grease before the pipe is laid. After placing a length of pipe in the trench,
the spigot end shall be centred in the socket and the pipe forced home and aligned to gradient. The
pipe shall be secured in place with approved back fill material packed on both sides except at socket.

In general, the socket end should face the upstream while laying the pipeline on level ground.
However, the socket end should face the downstream subject to the strength of the joint and
workmanship as per the guidelines. When the pipeline runs uphill, the socket ends should face the
up gradient. When the pipes run beneath the heavy loads, suitable size of casing pipes or culverts
may be provided to protect the casing of pipe. High-pressure mains need anchorage at dead ends
and bends as appreciable thrust occurs which tend to cause draw and even “blow out” joints. Where
thrust is appreciable, concrete blocks should be installed at all points where movement may occur.

Anchorages are necessary to resist the tendency of the pipes to pull apart at bends or other points
of unbalanced pressure, or when they are laid on steep gradients and the resistance of their joints to
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longitudinal or shear stresses is either exceeded or inadequate. They are also used to restrain or
direct the expansion and contraction of rigidly joined pipes under the influence of temperature
changes. Anchor or thrust blocks shall be designed in accordance with IS: 5330-1984 reaffirmed
2020.

11.2.3 Testing of the Pipeline

After a new pipe has been laid, jointed, and backfilled, it shall be subjected to a pressure test and
leakage test at a pressure to be specified by the authority for a duration of two hours.

After laying and jointing, the pipeline must be pressure tested to ensure that pipes and joints are
sound enough to withstand the maximum pressure likely to be developed under working conditions.
[Link] Testing of Pressure Pipes
The field test pressure to be imposed should be not less than the maximum of the following:
a) 1.50 times the maximum sustained operating pressure.
b) 1.50 times the maximum pipeline static pressure.
c) maximum sustained operating pressure plus maximum surge pressure (in case of pumping
mains);
d) sum of the maximum pipeline static pressure and the maximum surge pressure, subject to a
maximum equal to the work test pressure for any pipe fitting incorporated;
e) testing pressure in accordance with the provisions of IS of relevant pipe material used.

• Operating pressure
Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) is the maximum pressure that can be
safely operated by a pipeline. The thickness of the wall, pipe outer diameter, and specified
minimum yield stress are used to calculate the MAOP of a pipe. Barlow’s Formula relates
the internal pressure that a pipe can withstand to its dimensions and the strength of its
materials.
F
The formula is C = 2 × D ×
8

Where,
P = pressure
S = allowable stress
T = wall thickness
D = outside diameter
• Static pressure
In hydrodynamics, it can be experimentally verified that each point of a fluid at rest exerts
the same pressure around it in all directions. This pressure is called static pressure. This
quantity is also known as hydrostatic pressure and does not depend on the velocity of
flow, like dynamic pressure. The static pressure is part of the total pressure of a system,
whose value still considers the quantities of the dynamic pressure and the gravitational
potential energy of the system.
• Surge pressure
A surge in pressure within a piping system, known as water or fluid hammer, occurs
whenever the linear flow rate of fluid in pipe changes quickly – when pumps start or stop,
valves open or close with quick acting actuation devices, or entrapped air moves within
the system. The longer the pipeline and the faster the fluid is moving, the greater potential

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for shock. Surges in pressure place stress on piping materials and joints and can cause
for shock. Surges in pressure place stress on piping materials and joints and can cause
physical movement of the piping system. Engineering designs must incorporate controls
physical
that canmovement
maintain surgeof thepressures
piping system.
withinEngineering designscapabilities
the piping system’s must incorporate controlsor
and eliminate
that can maintain surge pressures within the piping system’s capabilities and eliminate or
minimise physical motion of the system. It is very possible to have surge pressures twice
minimise
as high physical
as normal motion of thepressure.
operating system. ItLong-term
is very possible to haveofsurge
performance pressures
the piping twice
system can
as high as normal operating pressure. Long-term performance of the piping system can
be affected by repetitive shock waves, potentially resulting in leaks and other costly
be affected by repetitive shock waves, potentially resulting in leaks and other costly
damage. Some surge pressure problems result from poor piping system design – no
damage.
matter what Somematerial
surge pressure
is used for problems result Reducing
the system. from poor the piping
pipesystem
size toodesign – nofor
quickly,
matter what material is used for the system. Reducing the pipe size too quickly, for
example, can result in surge pressure issues. The system may include 8-inch pipe when
example,
enteringcan a teeresult
andinreduce
surge down
pressure issues.
to two 3-inchThe system
pipes may out
coming include 8-inch
of the pipe when
tee. This type of
entering a tee and reduce down to two 3-inch pipes coming out of the tee. This type of
situation creates a surge pressure inside the tee as the fluid has to greatly increase in
situation creates a surge pressure inside the tee as the fluid has to greatly increase in
linear velocity to push the same volume flow rate through a smaller cross-sectional flow
linear
[Link]
Different to materials
push the perform
same volume flow in
differently rate through
surge a smaller
pressure cross-sectional
situations depending flow
upon
area. Different materials perform differently in surge pressure situations depending upon
their strength and elasticity. Understanding the material used in a piping system and
their strengththeand
designing elasticity.
system Understanding
to regulate pressuretheand material usedvelocities
fluid flow in a piping system and
according to its
designing the system to regulate pressure and fluid flow velocities according to its
capabilities are important for the system’s long-term performance. Proper sizing of pipe
capabilities are important for the system’s long-term performance. Proper sizing of pipe
throughout the system, regulation of the speed with which valves and pumps actuate, and
throughout
incorporation the system,
of surge regulation
dampeningofdevices
the speed canwith
limitwhich valves
the impact ofand pumpsshock
hydraulic actuate,
andand
keep
incorporation of surge dampening devices can limit the impact of hydraulic shock and keep
the total system pressure within the design parameters. By combining quality piping and
the total system pressure within the design parameters. By combining quality piping and
proper design, long-term performance can be ensured. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) – The
proper design, long-term performance can be ensured. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) – The
hydraulic grade is the sum of the pressure head and elevation head. The hydraulic head
hydraulic grade is the sum of the pressure head and elevation head. The hydraulic head
represents the height to which a water column would rise in a piezometer. The plot of the
represents the height to which a water column would rise in a piezometer. The plot of the
hydraulic grade in a profile is often referred to as the hydraulic grade line, or HGL.
hydraulic grade in a profile is often referred to as the hydraulic grade line, or HGL.
If the visual inspection satisfies that there is no leakage, the test can be passed. Where the field test
Invert level is
pressure of less
pipe than
- Pipetwo-third
invert elevation
the workistestthe pressure,
vertical distance
the periodbetween
of testtheshould
inside-bottom of a pipe
be increased to at
and the ground level.
least 24 hours. The test pressure shall be gradually raised at the rate of 1 kg/cm /min (0.1 2

N/mm2/min). The field test pressure should wherever possible be not less than two-third work test
If the visual inspection satisfies that there is no leakage, the test can be passed. Where the field test
pressure appropriate to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron pipes and should be applied
pressure is less than two-third the work test pressure, the period of test should be increased to at
and maintained for at least four hours.
least 24 hours. The test pressure shall be gradually raised at the rate of 1 kg/cm2/min (0.1
If the2/min).
N/mm pressure Themeasurements
field test pressure are not made
should at the lowest
wherever point
possible beofnot
theless
section,
than an allowance
two-third workshould
test
be madeappropriate
pressure for the difference in static
to the class head
of pipe between
except the
in the lowest
case pointiron
of spun andpipes
the point of measurement
and should be appliedto
andensure that thefor
maintained maximum pressure
at least four [Link] not exceeded at the lowest point. If a drop in pressure occurs,
the quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test pressure should be carefully measured.
If This
the pressure
should not measurements
exceed 0.1 litre are
pernotmmmade at the
of pipe lowestper
diameter point
KMofofthe section,
pipeline perandayallowance
for each 30should
metre
behead
made for the difference in static head between the lowest point and the point
of pressure applied. In case of gravity pipes, maximum working pressure shall be two-third work of measurement to
ensure that the maximum pressure is not exceeded at the lowest point. If a drop in pressure occurs,
test pressure.
the quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test pressure should be carefully measured.
This shouldProcedure
[Link] not exceedfor 0.1Leakage
litre per mmTestof pipe diameter per KM of pipeline per day for each 30 metre
head of pressure applied. In case of gravity pipes, maximum working pressure shall be two-third work
A leakage
test pressure. test shall be conducted concurrently with the pressure test. The allowable leakage, as per
the clause 7.3.2 of BIS Code IS: 3114 (1994, reaffirmed 2019), during the pipe installation should not
exceedProcedure
[Link] the qL value for(inLeakage
cm 3/hour) calculated by the following formula:
Test
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁√𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
A leakageqLtest
= shall be conducted concurrently with the pressure test. The allowable leakage, as per
(11.1)
3.3
the clause 7.3.2 of BIS Code IS: 3114 (1994, reaffirmed 2019), during the pipe installation should not
Where,
exceed the qL value (in cm3/hour)3 calculated by the following formula:
qL= Allowable leakage, cm /hour
D7√F
NqL
= No.
= of joints in the length of pipeline (11.1)
!.!
D = Diameter, mm
P = The average test pressure during the leakage test, kgf/cm 2
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Where,
Where
qL=any test of leakage,
Allowable pipe laid cm
indicates
3
/hour leakage greater than that specified as per the above formula,
the N
defective
= No. ofpipe(s)
joints inorthe
joint(s)
lengthshall be repaired/replaced until the leakage is within the specified
of pipeline
allowance.
D = Diameter, mm
P = The average test pressure during the leakage test, kgf/cm2
11.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages
Where any test of pipe laid indicates leakage greater than that specified as per the above formula,
The advantages of pipe are:
the defective pipe(s) or joint(s) shall be repaired/replaced until the leakage is within the specified
allowance.
• Good lasting qualities.
Good strength,
• Advantages
11.2.4 andstrong, and durable.
Disadvantages
• Good corrosion resistance, if coated, and can be used in soils and for water of slightly
The advantages
aggressiveof pipe are:
character.
•• Good lastingfor
Well suited qualities.
pressure mains and laterals where tapping is made for house connections.
• Good strength,
The disadvantages of pipe strong, and durable.
are:
• Good corrosion resistance, if coated, and can be used in soils and for water of slightly
•aggressive character.
Heavy weight,
• •WellShort
suited for pressure mains and laterals where tapping is made for house connections.
length,
The disadvantages
• Low tensile of pipe are:
strength,
•• Heavy weight,
Liability to defect of inner surface,
•• Short length,
Careful handling is required during transportation and jointing.
• Low tensile strength,
11.3 •Ductile Iron
Liability to Pipes
defect of inner surface,
• Careful handling is required during transportation and jointing.
11.3.1 General
11.3 Ductile Iron Pipes
Ductile iron, also called nodular iron or spheroidal graphite iron, is characterised by the presence of
graphite
11.3.1 in nodular or spheroidal form in the resultant casting. It differs from cast iron by greater
General
tensile strength and its significant elongation at break. Benefits of lower-cost production can be
Ductile iron, also called nodular iron or spheroidal graphite iron, is characterised by the presence of
expected in a case where natural resources are used, allowing the disposal cost to be reduced. For
graphite in nodular or spheroidal form in the resultant casting. It differs from cast iron by greater
a given nominal diameter, ductile iron pipes are duly designed with a larger internal diameter in order
tensile strength and its significant elongation at break. Benefits of lower-cost production can be
to reduce the head loss on energy pumping and the operation cost such as the electric power usage
expected in a case where natural resources are used, allowing the disposal cost to be reduced. For
cost.
a given nominal diameter, ductile iron pipes are duly designed with a larger internal diameter in order
to reduce the head loss on energy pumping and the operation cost such as the electric power usage
cost.
DI pipes have excellent properties of machinability, impact resistance, high wear and tear resistance,
high tensile strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance. DI pipes having same composition of CI
DI pipes
pipe, have
it will excellent
have same properties
expected of lifemachinability,
as that of CI impact
pipes. resistance,
DI pipes arehigh wearboth
strong, and tear
innerresistance,
and outer
high tensile
surfaces arestrength,
smooth,ductility,
free fromandlumps,
corrosion resistance.
cracks DI pipes
blisters and [Link]
Ductilesame
Iion composition
pipes stand of upCIto
pipe, it will have same expected life as that of CI pipes. DI pipes are strong, both inner and outer
hydraulic pressure tests as required by service regulations. The DI pipes are available in the range
surfaces
of 80 mmare smooth,
to 1200 free from inlumps,
mm diameter; lengthscracks
of 5.5 blisters anddiameter
to 6 m. For scars. Ductile
more thanIion1000
pipes stand
mm, up to
necessary
hydraulic pressure tests as required by service regulations. The DI pipes are available in the range
precautions should be adopted for proper jointing. For use and laying of DI pipes, IS 12288:1987,
ofReaffirmed
80 mm to 1200 2022 mm
maydiameter; in lengths of 5.5 to 6 m. For diameter more than 1000 mm, necessary
be referred.
precautions should be adopted for proper jointing. For use and laying of DI pipes, IS 12288:1987,
Reaffirmed
11.3.2 Laying 2022and
mayJointing
be referred.

11.3.2
LayingLaying and Jointing
Laying
Pipes should be lowered into the trench with tackle suitable for the weight of pipes. For smaller sizes,
Pipes
up to should
250 mmbenominal
loweredbore,
into the
the pipe
trench with
may betackle suitable
lowered by thefor theofweight
use ropes of
butpipes. For smaller
for heavier pipes,sizes,
either
up to 250 mm nominal bore, the pipe may be lowered by the use of ropes but for heavier pipes, either
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a well-designed set of shear legs or mobile crane should be used. When a lifting gear is used, the
positioning of the sling to ensure a proper balance, should be checked when the pipe is just clear of
the ground. If sheathed pipes are being laid, suitable wide slings or scissor dogs should be used. All
construction debris should be cleared from the inside of the pipe either before or just after a joint is
made.

It is recommended that above ground installations of spigot and socket pipes be provided with one
support per pipe, the supports being positioned behind the socket of each pipe. Pipes should be fixed
to the supports with mild steel straps so that axial movement due to expansion or contraction resulting
from temperature fluctuation, is taken up at individual joints in the pipeline. In addition, joints should
be assembled with the spigot end withdrawn 5 to 10 mm from the bottom of the socket to
accommodate these thermal movements. Detailed specification on DI pipes may be referred at IS
8329: 2000 (Reaffirmed 2020).

The width of the trench at bottom between the faces of sheeting shall be such as to provide not less
than 200 mm clearance on either side of the pipe except where rock excavation is involved. Trenches
shall be of such extra width, when required, as will permit the convenient placing of timber supports,
strutting and planking, and handling of specials.

Special consideration should be given to the depth of the trench. In agricultural land, the depth should
be sufficient to provide a cover of not less than 900 mm so that the pipeline will not interfere with the
cultivation of the land. In rocky ground, rough grazing or swamps, the cover may be reduced, provided
the water in the pipeline is not likely to freeze due to frost.

Where pipes are to be bedded directly on the bottom of the trench, it should be levelled and trimmed
to permit even bedding of the pipeline. Where excavation is through rocks or boulders, the special
bedding for DI pipes shall be as per BIS specifications.

For the purpose of backfilling, the depth of the trench shall be considered as divided into the following
three zones from the bottom of the trench to its top:
a. Zone A: From the bottom of the trench to the level of the centre line of the pipe,
b. Zone B; From the level of the centre line of the pipe to level 300 mm above the top of the
pipe, and
c. Zone C: From a level 300 mm above the top of the pipe to the top of the trench.

All backfill material shall be free from cinders, ashes, slag, refuse, rubbish, vegetable or organic
material, lumpy or frozen material, boulders, rocks or stone or other material, which in the opinion of
the authority, is unsuitable or deleterious. However, material containing stones up to 200 mm as their
greatest dimension may be used in Zone C, unless specified otherwise herein.

Sand used for backfill shall be a natural sand, graded from fine to coarse. The total weight of loam
and clay in it shall not exceed 10 per cent. All material shall pass through a sieve or aperture size
2.00 mm {IS: 2405 (Part II) -1980, Reaffirmed 2018}, and not more than 5 per cent shall remain on
IS sieve or aperture size 0.63 mm.

Gravel used for backfill shall be natural gravel, having durable particles graded from fine to coarse in
a reasonably uniform combination with no boulders or stones larger than 50 mm in size. It shall not
contain excessive amount of loam and clay and not more than 15 per cent shall remain on a sieve of
aperture size 75 micron.

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For more details on backfilling and pipeline anchoring, BIS code IS 12288: 1987 (Reaffirmed
year: 2022)- Code of Practice for Use and Laying of Ductile Iron Pipes may be referred.
Jointing
All pipelines having unanchored flexible joints require anchorage at changes of direction and at dead
ends to resist the static thrusts developed by internal pressure. Dynamic thrusts caused by flowing
water act in the same direction as static thrusts.

Three main types of joints are used with ductile iron pipes and fittings (Refer BIS Code IS 8329-2000
(Reaffirmed year: 2020) - Centrifugally Cast (Spun) Ductile Iron Pressure Pipes for Water, Gas and
Sewage):
a) Socket and spigot flexible joints:
(i) Push-on joint
(ii) Mechanical joints
b) Rigid flanged joint
c) Restrained joint (bolted and boltless)

The spigot and socket flexible joint should be designed to permit angular deflection and axial
movement to compensate ground movement and thermal expansion and contraction. They
incorporate gasket of elastomeric material and the joints may be of the simple push-on type or
mechanical joints. Flexible joints require to be externally anchored at all changes in direction such as
at bends, etc., and at blank end to resist the thrust created by internal pressure and to prevent the
withdrawal of spigots. Figure 11.2 shows flexible joint (push in type) and flanged joint.

In case of push-on joints, if any, they shall be suitably chamfered to facilitate smooth entry of spigot
in the socket of the pipes or fittings fitted with rubber gasket. Push-on joint fittings are normally not
used for sizes above DN 1 600. The material of rubber gaskets for use with mechanical joints and
push-on joints shall conform to IS: 5382-2018–Rubber Seals—Joint Rings for Water Supply,
Drainage and Sewerage Pipelines — Specification for Materials (Second Revision).

Figure 11.2: Flexible Joint (Push in type) and Flanged Joint

Rubber gaskets used with push-on joints or mechanical joints shall conform to (IS 5382-2018).
Material of rubber gaskets for push-on mechanical or flanged joints shall be compatible with the fluid
to be conveyed at the working pressure and temperature. Rubber gaskets for mechanical joint for
conveyance of town gas may be suitably protected so that the elastomer does not come in direct
contact with the gas. While conveying potable water, the gaskets should not deteriorate the quality
of water and should not impart any bad taste or foul odour.

The dimensions and tolerances of the flanges of pipes and fittings shall be such, so as to ensure the
interconnection between all flanged components (pipes, fittings, valves) of the same DN and PN and
adequate joint performance. For screwed and welded on flanged pipes, the minimum classes for
working pressure criteria are given in Clause 4.5 of IS 8329:2000, reaffirmed year 2020. Flanged
joints are made on pipes having a machined flange at each end of the pipe. The seal is usually
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effected by means of a flat rubber gasket compressed between two flanges by means of bolts which
also serve to connect the pipe rigidly. Gaskets of other materials, both metallic and non-metallic, are
used for special applications.

In case of flange and mechanical joint casting, the flange shall be at right angle to the axis of the
joint. The bolt holes shall be either cored or drilled. The centre of bolt holes circle shall be concentric
with the bore circle and shall be located off the centre line. Where there are two or more flanges, the
bolt holes shall be correctly aligned between them. The flanges shall be plain faced or with raised
boss over the contact surface with a tool mark finishing having a pitch of 1 (±) 0.3 mm; serrations
may be spiral or concentric.

An alternative and economical method of providing thrust restraint is the use of restrained joints. A
restrained joint is a special type of push-on or mechanical joint that is designed to provide longitudinal
restraint. Restrained joint systems function in a manner similar to thrust blocks, in so far as the
reaction of the entire restrained unit of piping with the soil balances the thrust forces. Refer ISO
21052:2021 for determining the restraining length. In swamps or marshes where the soil is unstable
or in other situations where the bearing strength of the soil is extremely poor, the entire pipeline shall
be restrained joint system to provide adequate thrust restraint. As per the IS 8329-2000 (Reaffirmed
year 2020), for high-pressure mains where working pressure is substantial, depending on site
condition, a suitable flexible joint may be preferred where the joint is restrained against axial
movement and the restraint joint may be considered in the transmission/gravity main where the
working pressure is more than 8 kg/cm2. Restrained joint pipe and fittings shall be used as carrier
pipe for road crossings/railway crossings. In hilly areas where pipeline is laid on a slope, DI pipes
with restrained joint shall also be used to avoid pipe slippage and joint separation. Figure 11.3 shows
DI Boltless Restrained joint and Figure 11.4 shows DI bolted restrained joints.

Figure 11.3: DI Boltless Restrained joint

Figure 11.4: DI Bolted Restrained Joints

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Procedure for jointing will vary according to the type of joint being used. Basic requirements for all
types are:
a) Cleanliness of all parts,
b) Correct location of components,
c) Centralisation of spigot within socket, and
d) Strict compliance with manufacturer’s jointing instructions.
Where the pipeline is likely to be subjected to movement due to subsidence or temperature variations,
the use of flexible joints is recommended. A gap should be left between the end of the spigot and the
back of the socket to accommodate such movement.

11.3.3 Fittings
The ductile iron fittings are manufactured conforming to (IS 9523-2000, Reaffirmed 2020), for ductile
iron fittings. The frequency of testing is related to the system of production and quality control at
production level. The maximum batch size shall be 4 MT of crude castings, excluding the risers.

Mechanical tests shall be carried out during manufacturing by batch sampling system. The samples,
being representative of finished product, are tested for tensile strength, elongation, and hardness to
verify mechanical requirements. One test for castings produced within 24-hours period shall be
adequate. The results obtained shall be taken as to represent all the fittings of all sizes made during
that period.

For checking, Brinell hardness test may be carried out on the test bar. Fittings shall be supplied in
either ‘as cast’ condition or ‘heat treated’ condition.

For hydrostatic test, the fittings shall be kept under pressure for 10 seconds. They shall withstand
the pressure test without showing any sign of leakage, sweating or other defect of any kind. The test
shall be conducted before the application of surface coating.

When the pipe used under the conditions for which they are designed, in permanent or in temporary
contact with water intended for human consumption, ductile iron pipes and their joints shall not have
detrimental effects on the properties of the water for its intended use

11.3.4 Special Lining and Coatings for DI Pipes and Fittings

IS 8329 specifies bituminous or epoxy coating over Zinc Aluminium coating in ductile iron pipes.
Industry has also come up with special coatings which are manufactured as per International
Standards, like BS – EN, ISO, etc. The coatings are as follows.

[Link] Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE) coating

Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coating of steel materials is primer-less, one-part, heat-curable,
thermosetting powdered epoxy coating which is designed to provide maximum corrosion protection
to the substrate steel. It is a coating of very fast curing and thermosetting protective powder which
utilises heat to melt and adhere the coating material to the steel substrate. It is based on specially
selected epoxy resins and hardeners. The epoxy is formulated to meet the specifications related to
protection of steel as an anti-corrosion coating. Heat cured FBE coatings are 100% solids consisting
of thermosetting materials which achieve a high bond to metal surface because of a heat-generated
chemical reaction. FBE is applied to coat DI pipes and fittings with powdered epoxy by fusion bonding
process. The coatings enhance the corrosion-resistant properties of the piping system. It gives high
gloss and smooth coatings with excellent adhesion. Difficult shapes can be coated evenly and
provides enhanced corrosion restraint properties. FBE coating is widely used for coating of steel
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pipes, pipe fittings, pumps and valves used for the transmission of oil, gas, slurry, and water. This
inert coating is suitable for extreme corrosive soils. Figure 11.5 shows application of fusion-bonded
epoxy coating in various surfaces.

Figure 11.5: Application of fusion-bonded epoxy coating in various surfaces

[Link] Polyurethane (PU) Coating

A polyurethane coating is a polyurethane layer applied to the surface of a substrate for the purpose
of protecting it. These coatings help protect substrates from various types of defects such as
corrosion, weathering, abrasion and other deteriorating processes. The “special” coatings are
designed to give greater external corrosion protection for pipes to be installed in aggressive soil
conditions or for greater internal corrosion protection for pipes transporting highly corrosive liquids.
The coating thickness is 700 microns as per EN 15189. The internal PU lining is applied in
accordance with BS EN 15655:2018. Linings and coatings are applied in metallic pipelines are used
for transporting abrasive and corrosive fluids as well as the pipes are laid in extremely corrosive
environment. It is well suited for saline soil, coastal areas, ground with chemical contamination, refuse
sites, farmyard, etc. Figure 11.6 shows polyurethane coated pipe.

Figure 11.6: Polyurethane coated pipe

[Link] High Alumina Cement Mortar Lining

Centrifugally applied inside metallic pipes in place of common cement mortar lining, high alumina
cement mortar lining creates a mildly alkaline surface and protects the base metal of metallic pipe

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from corrosion and tuberculation and provides a tough surface to corrosive and abrasive fluids. High
alumina cement should be conforming to BS EN 14647:2005.
[Link] Ceramic Epoxy Lining
Specialised lining applied inside the metallic pipeline which offers a hard and stable surface with high
abrasion resistance. These linings are used for sewage conveyance or ash slurry conveyance or for
conveying corrosive fluids. The above is in general used for carrying sewage.

11.3.5 Testing of the Pipelines

After a new pipeline is laid and jointed, hydraulic testing shall be done for:
a) mechanical soundness and leak tightness of pipes and fittings;
b) leak tightness of joints; and
c) soundness of any construction work, in particular, that of the anchorages.
Hydrostatic testing may be performed for the completed pipeline either in one length or in sections;
the length of section depending upon:
(i) availability of suitable water,
(ii) number of joints to be inspected, and
(iii) difference in elevation between one part of the pipeline and another.
Where the joints are left uncovered until after testing, sufficient material should be backfilled over the
centre of each pipe to prevent movement under the test pressure. Progressively as experience is
gained, lengths of about 1.5 km or more, should be tested in one section, subject to consideration of
length of trench which can be left open in particular circumstances.
As per ISO 10802: 2020, the test pressure at the lowest point of the test section shall be not less
than the limit specified in a) or b), whichever is greater.

a) For PW ≤ 10 bar: PST = 1.5 × PW

b) For PW > 10 bar: PST = PW + 5
c) The maximum PW: PST = PMDc
Where,
PW: highest pressure that occurs at a time and a point in the pipeline when operating continuously
under stable conditions, without surge;
PST: pressure to which a pipeline or a pipeline section is subjected for testing purposes;

PMDc: maximum operating pressure of the system or of the pressure zone fixed by the designer
considering future developments including surge in case of surge is calculated (pumping and water
mains).

If the test is not satisfactory, the fault should be found and rectified. Where there is difficulty in locating
a fault, the section under test should be subdivided and each part tested separately. Methods
employed for finding leaks include:
(i)
Visual inspection of each joint if, not covered by the backfill;
(ii)
Use of a bar probe to detect signs of water in the vicinity of joints, if backfilled;
(iii)
Aural inspection using a stethoscope or listening stick in contact with the pipeline;
(iv)Use of electronic listening device which detects and amplifies the sound or vibrations due to
escaping of water, actual contact between the probe and the pipe is not essential;
(v) Injection of a dye into the test water particularly suitable in water-logged ground; and

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(vi) Introduction of nitrous oxide in solution into the test water and using an infrared gas
concentration indicator to detect the presence of any nitrous oxide that has escaped through
the leak.

11.3.6 Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of pipe are:
• High resistance against breakage due to impact;
• High tensile strength, comparable to that of mild steel so that the pipes can be used for higher
working pressure and can counter water hammer effectively;
• Traditional corrosion resistance, comparable to that of cast iron
• Lighter in mass as compared to cast iron pipes;
• Strong material properties and flexibility of joints contribute to prevent leakages;
• A comprehensive range of fittings manufactured and available;
• Easy incorporation of branches, service connections, etc.
• Well-developed mains and leakage detection systems.
The disadvantages of pipe are:
• Centrifugally cast pipe coatings required for protection against aggressive external operating
environments.
• Risk of stray current corrosion.

11.4 Galvanised Iron (GI) Pipes

11.4.1 General
Galvanised iron (GI) pipes are manufactured using mild steel strips of low carbon steel coils. The
strips are passed through a series of fin rolls to give them a circular shape. The slit ends of the strips
are then welded together by continuously passing high-frequency electric current across the edges.
The welded steel pipes are then passed through sizing sections where any dimensional deviations
are corrected. The pipes are then cut into desired lengths by automatic cutting machines. The tubes
are then pressure tested for any leaks. The galvanisation and varnishing of pipes are done as per
specific requirements. Further details may be referred to in IS 4736: 1986 Reaffirmed 2021, IS 1239
(Part 1): 2004, Reaffirmed 2019 and IS 1239 (Part 2): 2011, Reaffirmed 2021. Although negative
manufacturing tolerances of 8% or more have been mentioned for different types of steel tubes and
sockets in thickness of pipes in relevant IS code, some of the pipe manufactured lots may be
defective. Therefore, practically for safety of pipe these tolerances can be reviewed by ULB
considering the importance of field conditions typically prevalent in their area. Alternatively, the
design working pressure can be considered with suitable factor of safety.

The GI Pipes are generally used for distribution of treated or raw water. These pipes are cheaper,
light weight, and easy to transport. The health aspects should be given highest priority before
selecting the pipe material for drinking water supply purposes as the pipe material is highly corrosive.
It is not preferable to use GI pipes for house service connection (HSC).

The GI pipes are available in size range of 15 mm nominal bore to 150 mm outside diameter. 15 mm
nominal bore to 150 mm nominal bore in the different classes of tubes like light, medium and heavy
depending on wall thickness, are distinguished by colour bands such as light tubes (yellow), medium
tubes (blue) and heavy tubes (red).

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11.4.2 Laying and Jointing

All screwed tubes are supplied with pipe threads conforming to IS 554:1999, Reaffirmed 2019. Tubes,
as per the IS 1239 (Part 1): 2004, Reaffirmed 2019, are supplied screwed with taper threads and
fitted with one socket having parallel thread. The socket conforms to all requirements of IS 1239 (Part
2): 2011, Reaffirmed 2021. Pipes are generally joined using screwed joints. All threads for screw
joints shall be clean, machine cut, and all pipes shall be reamed before erection. Each length of pipe
as erected shall be upended and rapped to dislodge dirt and scale. Screwed joint shall be made up
with good quality thread compound and applied to the male thread only. After having been set up, a
joint must not be backed off unless the joint is completely broken, the threads cleaned, and new
compound applied. Flange joints may be used if necessary. For pipe laid under ditches, pipe bedding
shall be compacted for the entire length of the pipe, good alignment shall be preserved, and fittings
may be used where necessary. Tubulars, sockets, and fittings shall be galvanised before screwing.

11.4.3 Testing of the Pipelines

Hydrostatic test is carried out at a pressure of 5 MPa (50.98 Kg-f/cm2) (1 MPa =10.197 Kg-f/cm2) and
the same is maintained for at least three seconds and shall not show any leakage in the pipe.

Each tube shall be tested for leak tightness as an in-process test at manufacturer's works either by
hydrostatic test or alternatively by eddy current test. Mass of zinc coating shall be determined in
accordance with IS 4736: 1986, (Reaffirmed Year: 2021). The test for uniformity of zinc coating shall
be done in accordance with IS 2633: 1986, (Reaffirmed Year: 2021).

The adhesion of zinc coating on fittings shall be determined by pivoted hammer test in accordance
with IS 2629:1985 (Reaffirmed 2021). The zinc coating shall be reasonably smooth and free from
such imperfections as flux, ash and dross inclusions, bare patches, black spots, pimples, lumpiness,
runs, rust stains, bulky white deposits, and blisters.

11.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of pipe are:
• Higher durability and longevity;
• Weld consistency and integrity;
• Amenable to rigorous fabrication;
• Superior finish and anti-rust coating;
• Greater corrosion resistance on the outer surface due to galvanisation;
• Superior bend ability and ease of cutting and threading.

Disadvantages of pipe are:

• Galvanised iron should never be used underground unless properly covered, which can be
inconvenient for many jobs.
• It often hides significant defects beneath the zinc coating on the steel.
• Galvanised iron pipes may contain lead, which corrodes quickly and reduces the lifespan of
the piping.
• Galvanised iron may leave rough patches inside pipes, resulting in serious failures and
stoppages that can be expensive to repair.
• Prone to corrosion and leakage at the ferrule point, due to exposure of steel surface due to
drilling to water.
• Greater incrustation inside the pipe increases head loss.

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11.5 Steel Pipes

11.5.1 General
Steel pipes shall be manufactured with the steel produced by the open hearth or electric furnace or
one of the basic oxygen processes. Other process may also be used by agreement between the
purchaser and the manufacturer. The pipes shall be manufactured by the processes of seamless
pipes, electric resistance welded pipes, and submerged arc welded pipes. The thickness of the steel
pipe is controlled due to the need to make the pipe stiff enough to keep its circular shape during
storage, transport, laying, and also to take the load of trench backfilling and vehicles. Injurious defects
in pipe wall, provided their depth does not exceed one-third of the specified wall thickness, shall be
repaired by welding.
Steel pipes of smaller diameter can be made from solid bar sections by hot or cold drawing processes
and these tubes are referred to as seamless, but the larger sizes are made by welding together the
edges of suitably curved plates, the sockets being formed later in a press (IS 3589: 2001, Reaffirmed
2022). The thickness of a steel pipe is, however, always considerably less than the thickness of the
corresponding vertically cast or spun iron pipe. Owing to the higher tensile strength of the steel pipes
(IS 3589:2001, Reaffirmed 2022), it is possible to make steel pipe of lower wall thickness and lower
weight. The minimum thickness of steel pipe shall be as per Table 5 of IS 3589. Specials of all kinds
can be fabricated without difficulty to suit the different site conditions.
The IS 5822 (1994, Reaffirmed 2019) code of practice for laying of electrically welded steel pipes for
water supply covers the methods of laying electrically welded mild steel pipes of outside diameters
168.3 mm to 2032 mm (as covered in IS 3589: 2001, Reaffirmed 2022), laid either above ground or
underground for water supply.

11.5.2 Laying and Jointing

[Link] Laying

(A) Soil Resistivity Survey

Before laying of MS pipes, soil resistivity survey should be carried out.
The corrosion of underground MS pipes is related to the soil resistivity. If soil resistivity is lower, there
are chances of corrosion. The resistivity rating is given in Table 11.2 under subsection [Link].
Soil resistivity testing with accurate collection of data is the best indicator of the corrosivity of the soil
for buried metallic structures and has a significant impact on the design of cathodic protection
systems. The most common test methodology for field collection of soil data is the Wenner four-pin
method. When properly collected, and using appropriate analytical techniques, the soil resistance
field data can provide an accurate assessment of soil resistivity values for use in designing an
appropriate cathodic protection system. The corrosion rate of the water pipeline is an essential
parameter to predict pipeline damage. If the soil resistivity is 5000 [Link] and less (Table 11.2 under
subsection [Link]), proper anti-corrosion measures should be taken. For example, external coating
and wrapping of mild steel pipes is recommended to be done according to the IS 10221 (2008),
Reaffirmed 2021 – Clause 8.2 and other relevant clauses. The trench shall be so dug that the pipe
may be laid to the required alignment and at required depth. When the pipeline is under a roadway,
a minimum cover of 1.0 m is recommended, but it may be modified to suit local conditions by taking
necessary precautions. The trench shall be shored, wherever necessary, and kept dry so that the
workman may work therein safely, and efficiently. The discharge of the trench dewatering pumps
shall be conveyed either to drainage channels or to natural drains and shall not be allowed to be
spread in the vicinity of the worksite. Open-cut trenches shall be sheeted and braced as required by
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any governing state laws and municipal regulations and as may be necessary to protect life, property,
or the work. For all pipelines laid above ground, provision for expansion and contraction on account
of temperature variation should be made either by providing expansion joints at predetermined
intervals or by providing loops where leakage through expansion joints cannot be permitted.

Trenching includes all excavation which is carried out by hand or by machine. The width of the trench
shall be kept to a minimum, consistent with the working space required. At the bottom between the
faces, it shall be such as to provide not less than 200 mm clearance on either side of the pipe. The
bottom of the trench shall be properly trimmed to permit even bedding of the pipeline. For pipes larger
than 1,200 mm diameter in earth and murum the curvature of the bottom of the trench should match
the curvature of the pipe as far as possible. Where rock or boulders are encountered, the trench shall
be trimmed to a depth of at least 100 mm below the level at which the bottom of the barrel of the pipe
is to be laid and filled to a like depth with lean cement concrete or with a non-compressible material
like sand of adequate depth to give the curved seating. For details on laying of welded steel pipe, IS
5822-1994, Reaffirmed 2019 may be referred to.

Anchors to be designed as per IS 5330 (1984, Reaffirmed 2020), should be provided on the pipeline
at the position of line valves or sectionalising valves, at the blank flange, at the tapers and at the mid-
point between two consecutive expansion joints, in the case of above ground pipeline. Supports
should be designed to support the pipeline without causing excessive local stresses. Due allowance
shall be made for the weight of water, hydrostatic head, frictional resistance at the supports, etc.
Proper bearing surface, such as flat base, roller and rocker, should be provided where controlled
movements are required.

The internal design pressure shall not be less than the maximum pressure to which the pipeline is
likely to be subjected including allowance for surge pressure, if any. The pipe selected shall be strong
enough to withstand the effect of partial vacuum corresponding to one-third the atmospheric pressure
which may occur within the pipe and due to any pressure exerted by water or soil around it.

Buried steel pipelines are liable to external corrosion and should be protected by the use of suitable
coatings and shall be in accordance with IS 10221: 2008, Reaffirmed 2021. Pipelines laid above
ground are liable to atmospheric corrosion and should be adequately protected.

(B) PROTECTIVE COATINGS

It must be borne in mind, however, that steel mains need protection from corrosion, internally and
externally. Against internal corrosion, steel pipes are given epoxy lining or hot-applied coal tar/asphalt
lining or rich cement mortar lining at works or in the field by the centrifugal process.
i. Three-Layer Polyethylene (3 LPE) Coating
External three-layer polyethylene coating applied over steel pipes have the following layers as
given in the Figure 11.7 below.

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Figure 11.7: Special coating in Mild Steel pipe

a) 1st Primer layer of anti-corrosive fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE): In this layer, epoxy powder
is spray-applied with electrostatic guns in typical thickness of 80 – 250 μm. The epoxy layer
improves the bond with the steel base metal and arrests cathodic disbandment of the anti-
corrosive coating with the metal surface.
b) 2nd Intermediate layer of copolymer adhesive: Copolymer bonding layer extruded in typical
thickness of 200 μm to bond the outer polyethylene layer to the epoxy prime coat.
c) 3rd Layer topcoat polyethylene: Outer top layer comprising of polyethylene extruded in
typical thickness of 1.8 – 3.5 mm, at service temperature up to 80 °C.
The three coats (3LPE) provide mechanical strength and anti-corrosive properties to the base
metal of pipe.
Applicable Standards: 3LPE coating is applied as per International Standards (DIN 30670:2012,
CAN.Z245.21.2018, ISO 21809-1:2018 specifications).
Application: 3LPE coating is applied to pipes when it is exposed to severe corrosive environment.

ii. Bituminous tape Coating (IS 10221-2008)

Anti-corrosive pipe wrapping tape is used for the protection of underground metallic pipelines
from corrosion; fibre glass reinforced, bituminous tape comprising thermofusible film on both
sides, helps in protection against corrosion, UV and water ingress. The wrapping tape is applied
by the help of a blow torch in outer surface of steel pipes. Figure 11.8 shows torch application for
bituminous wrap coating and Figure 11.9 shows application of tape coating in pipeline.

Figure 11.8: Torch application for Figure 11.9: Application of tape coating in
bituminous wrap coating pipeline

iii. Internal Food Grade Solvent-Free Epoxy Coating

Food grade solvent-free liquid epoxy coating is applied inside water conveyance pipes. Apart from
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inside the pipe surface, as well as reduce the friction losses in the pipe. Hot airless spray method
is used for coating the internal surface of the pipe up to a thickness of 1.5 mm. Applicable
standards are: Annex B for IS 3589:2001, Reaffirmed 2022, AWWA C210:2015. Figure 11.10
shows hot airless spray of food grade epoxy lining inside pipeline and Figure 11.11 shows internal
food grade solvent-free epoxy coating.

Figure 11.10: Hot airless spray of Figure 11.11: Internal Food Grade
Food grade epoxy lining inside Solvent-Free Epoxy coating
pipeline

iv. Guniting
The outer coating for underground pipeline may be in cement-sand guniting or hot-applied coal
tar asphaltic enamel reinforced with fibre glass fabric yarn. The other materials may also be
adopted for internal lining which should not provide adverse impact on health.

[Link] Jointing
The requirements for mild steel pipes up to 150 mm nominal diameter are covered in IS 1239 (Part
1): 2004, Reaffirmed 2019 and the requirements for mild steel and wrought steel fittings are covered
in IS 1239 (Part 2): 2011, Reaffirmed 2021. These pipes can be joined by means of the socket and
screw or by welding. The requirements for steel pipes with diameters greater than 150 mm are
covered in IS 3589: 2001, Reaffirmed 2022. The requirements for spiral welded pipes are given in IS
5504: 1997, Reaffirmed 2018. Higher diameter steel pipes and spiral welded pipes are joined by
welding only.

Small size mild steel pipes have got threaded ends with one socket. They are lowered down in the
trenches and laid to alignment and gradient. The jointing materials for this type of pipes are white
lead and spun yarn. The white lead is applied on the threaded end with spun yarn and inserted into
socket of another pipe. The pipe is then turned to tighten it. While laying, the pipes already stocked
along the trenches are lowered down into the trenches with the help of chain pulley block. The
formation of bed should be uniform. The pipes are laid true to the alignment and gradient before
jointing. The ends of these pipes are butted against each other, welded and a coat of rich cement
mortar is applied after welding.

Steel pipes may be joined with flexible joints or by welding but lead or other filler joints, hot or cold,
are not recommended. The welded joint is preferred. In areas prone to subsidence, this joint is
satisfactory but flexible joints must be provided to isolate valves and branches. When welding is
adopted, plain-ended pipes may be joined by butt welds or sleeved pipes by means of fillet welds.
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For laying long straight lengths of pipelines, butt joint technique may be employed. Steel pipes used
for water supply include hydraulic lap welded, electric fusion welded, submerged arc welded and
spiral welded pipes. The latter are being made from steel strip.

If the pipes are joined by a form of flexible joint, it provides an additional safeguard against failure.
Steel pipes being flexible are best suited for high dynamic loading.

A. Expansion Joints
Para. 8.3.2 of the BIS code IS: 5822:1994, (Reaffirmed in 2019) – “Code of Practice for Laying of
Electrically Welded Steel Pipes for Water Supply” mentions that for all pipelines laid above ground,
provision for expansion and contraction on account of temperature variation should be made either
by providing expansion joints at predetermined intervals or by providing loops where leakage through
expansion joints cannot be permitted. Where expansion joints are provided, it is necessary to create
restraining points on the pipeline to ensure proper functioning of these joints. The pipe laying work
should preferably start from the restrained points on either side working towards centre where the
expansion joint should be fitted last. Spacing of expansion joint depends on local conditions.
Provision of expansion joint at intervals of 300 m on exposed steel pipeline is generally
recommended. Expansion joints should always be provided between two fixed supports or
anchorages.

B. Welded Joints Testing

Radiographic tests (non-destructive testing of fusion welded butt joints in steel pipes)

The BIS Code IS 4853:1982, (Reaffirmed 2020): covers the radiographic inspection of fusion welded
butt joints in steel pipes up to the maximum size of 50 mm wall thickness, which may be referred to.

11.5.3 Fittings
For steel tubes, tubulars, and other wrought steel fittings, IS 1239 (Part I) (2004, Reaffirmed 2019)
may be referred to.

11.5.4 Testing of the Pipelines

Before putting it into commission, the welded pipeline shall be tested both for its strength and leakage.

The manufacturer shall carry out the specified tests applicable to each type of pipe, and they shall, if
required by the purchaser, supply a certificate stating that the pipes comply with the specified
requirements.

Where the purchaser requires tests, the number of pipes on which mechanical tests shall be
performed, shall be as follows:
(i) Up to and including 101.6 mm outside diameter – one pipe in each 400 tubes as made

(ii) Over 101.6 mm outside diameter – one pipe in each 200 pipes as made
If the number of samples specified in this clause, when applied to a particular order, necessitates a
number of pipes which includes a fraction, the fraction shall be treated as unity.

Tensile test should be carried out in accordance with IS: 3601:2006, (Reaffirmed 2022).

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The welded joints shall be tested in accordance with procedure laid down in the relevant BIS
Standards. One test specimen taken from at least one field joint out of any 10 shall be subjected to
test.
Each valved section of the pipe shall be slowly filled with clean water and all air shall be expelled
from the pipeline through hydrants, air valves, and blow-offs fixed on the pipeline. Before starting the
pressure test, the expansion joints should be tightened.
[Link] Pressure Test
The field test pressure to be imposed should be not less than the greatest of the following:
a) 1.5 times the maximum sustained operating pressure.
b) 1.5 times the maximum pipeline static pressure.
c) maximum sustained operating pressure plus maximum surge pressure (in case of pumping
mains);
d) sum of the maximum pipeline static pressure and the maximum surge pressure, subject to a
maximum equal to the work test pressure for any pipe fitting incorporated;
e) testing pressure in accordance with the provisions of IS of relevant pipe material used.
Where the field test pressure is less than two-thirds the factory test pressure, the period of test should
be at least 24 hours. The test pressure shall be gradually raised at the rate of nearly 0.1 N/mm2 per
minute.
Each valve section of pipe shall be filled with water slowly and the specified test pressure, based on
the elevation of lowest point of the linear section under test and corrected to the elevation of the test
gauge, shall be applied by means of a pump connected to the pipe in a manner satisfactory to the
authority.
Under the test pressure no leak or sweating shall be visible at all section of pipes, fittings, valves,
hydrants, and welded joints. Any defective pipes, fittings, valves, or hydrants discovered in
consequence of this pressure test shall be removed and replaced by sound material and the test
shall be repeated until satisfactory to the authority.

11.5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of pipe are:
• Due to their elasticity, steel pipes adopt themselves to changes in relative ground level without
failure and hence are very suitable for laying in ground liable to subsidence.
• Compared to cast iron pipes of the same size, steel pipes are lightweight. Steel pipes perform
well in unusual circumstances, such as non-uniform bedding, settling soils, or when subjected
to external loads due to their longitudinal strength.
• Easy installation of steel pipes is an advantage over cast iron pipes of similar strength. Steel
pipes have smooth outer surfaces which makes installation using micro-tunnelling possible.
• Steel pipes have low frictional resistance to the flow of water. The thin walls of steel pipe
generate a larger inside diameter which allows greater flow capacity.
• Risk of leaking mainly exists at the joints. Since steel pipes can be welded at the joints, the
risk of leaking is much less.
• Service life of steel pipes depends on the rate of corrosion and abrasion. Impurities in water
cause pipe abrasion to occur more rapidly.
• Reliability is a factor which can assure that pipe can tolerate any unprecedented event such
as flood, soil movement, earthquake, etc. Steel is considered tough because of wide ductile
range and ultimate stress resistance.

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• A versatile pipe material will easily adapt to required [Link] there are any changes
in the bedding of the pipe, the beam strength of the steel can compensate.

The disadvantages of pipe are:

• Steel pipes required epoxy coating inside and 3LPE coating from outside and cathodic
protection of whole pipeline.
• Welding joints for steel water pipe are complicated and require skilled labour.
• Steel pipe is susceptible to internal tuberculation and external corrosion, and is subjected to
electrolysis, if not properly protected.
• Use of anti-corrosion products increases the price of production and maintenance of steel pipe.
Air vacuum valves are necessary in large diameter pipes to prevent collapse.

11.6 Asbestos Cement (AC) Pressure Pipes

11.6.1 General
Asbestos cement pressure (AC pressure) pipes are made of a mixture of chrysotile asbestos paste
(only contains 8%-10%) and cement (50%), clay (30-35%) and fly ash, wood, pulp, etc., which are
not considered harmful for human health. Even here the asbestos fibres are locked with cement
matrix particles and there is no scope for its disintegration/spreading in the air in normal
circumstances. The paste is compressed by steel rollers to form a laminated material of great strength
and density. Its carrying capacity remains substantially constant as when first laid, irrespective of the
quality of water. It can be drilled and tapped for house service connection through a saddle piece as
per clause 9.1 and 9.1.1 of IS 6530 1972, Reaffirmed 2022. The hole of required size shall be drilled
through the pipe and the boss (cushion) provided in the top strap. Ferrule piece shall be connected
after making threads in the boss and pipe. Suitable rubber packing shall be used between the straps
and the pipe to provide cushioning as well sealing against leakages.

AC pressure pipes are manufactured from classes 10 to 25 and nominal diameters of 80 mm to 1000
mm with the test pressure of 10 to 25 Kg/cm2. AC pressure pipe can meet the general requirements
of water supply undertakings for rising main as well as distribution main. It is classified as class 10,
15, 20, and 25, which have test pressures 10, 15, 20, and 25 Kg/cm2 respectively. Working pressures
shall not be greater than 50% of test pressure for pumping mains and 67% for gravity mains. The
BIS Code for the highest class of ACP pipe is class 25 having test pressure of 25kg/cm2 and working
pressure of 12.5 kg/cm2, which is equivalent to Class K7 of Ductile Iron Pipe having working pressure
of 12kg/cm2.
ACP pipe being non-metallic, once buried, the metal detector is ineffective in locating such pipes,
therefore, metallic locating tapes or copper wires can be placed alongside the ACP pipe without
causing significant cost, to facilitate locating buried ACP pipes.
These pipes are not suitable for use in sulphate soils. Due to expansion and contraction of black
cotton soil, usage of these pipes may be avoided as far as possible in black cotton (B.C.) soils, except
where the depth of B.C. soil is clearly less than 0.9 metre below ground level.
Storage of AC pipes shall be done on firm level and clean ground and wedges shall be provided at
the bottom layer to keep the stack stable. The stack shall be in pyramid shape or the pipes laid
lengthwise and crosswise in alternate layers. The pyramid stack is advisable in smaller diameter
pipes for conserving space in storing them. The height of the stack shall not exceed 1.5 m.

11.6.2 Laying and Jointing

[Link] Laying
The pipes shall have a minimum soil cover of 750 mm when laid under foot paths and sidewalks, 900

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mm when laid under roads with light traffic or under cultivated soils, and 1250 mm when laid under
roads with heavy traffic. When the soil has a poor bearing capacity and is subject to heavy traffic,
the pipes shall be laid on a concrete cradle. An extra trench depth of 100 mm shall be provided for
each jointing pit.

The pipes shall be lowered into the trenches either by hand passing or by means of two ropes. One
end of each rope shall be tied to a wooden or steel peg driven into the ground and the other end shall
be held by men which when slowly released will lower the pipe into the trench. The width of the trench
should be uniform throughout the length and greater than the outside diameter of the pipe by 300
mm on either side of the pipe. The depth of the trench is usually kept 1 metre above the top of the
pipe. For heavy traffic, a cover of at least 1.25 metre is provided on the top of the pipe.

In unstable soils, such as soft soils and dry lumpy soils, it shall be checked whether the soils can
support the pipelines and if required, suitable special foundation shall be provided. In places where
rock is encountered, a cushion of fine earth or sand shall be provided for a depth of 150 mm by
excavating extra depth of the trench, if necessary, and the pipes laid over the cushion. Where the
gradient of the bed slopes is more than 30°, it may be necessary to anchor a few pipes against their
sliding downwards.

The excavation of the trench shall be so carried out that the digging of the trenches does not get far
ahead of the laying operations. By doing this, the risk of falling of the sides and flooding of trenches
shall be avoided. The walls of the trench shall be cut generally to a slope of ¼:1 or ½:1, depending on
the nature of the soil. If the trench bottom is extremely hard or rocky or loose stony soil, the trench
should be excavated at least 150 mm below the trench grade.

Prior to being placed in the trench, pipes should be visually inspected for evidence of damage as any
damage to the pipe may impair its strength or integrity consequently. Before use, the inside of the
pipes will have to be cleaned. The lighter pipes weighing less than 80 Kg can be lowered in the trench
by hand. If the sides of the trench slope too much, ropes must be used. The pipes of medium weight
up to 200 Kg are lowered by means of ropes looped around both the ends. One end of the rope is
fastened to a wooden or steel stack driven into the ground and the other end of the rope is held by
men and is slowly released to lower the pipe into the trench. After their being lowered into the trench
they are aligned for jointing. The bed of the trench should be uniform. Utmost care must be taken
while loading, transportation, unloading, stacking, and carrying to the site to avoid damage to the
pipes. Figure 11.12 shows Cutting of AC Pressure Pipes and Figure 11.13 shows Laying of AC
Pressure Pipes in Rocks.

Figure 11.12: Cutting of AC Pressure Pipes

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Figure 11.13: Laying of AC Pressure Pipes in Rocks

[Link] Jointing
Before commencing jointing, the pipes shall be cleaned; the joints and the ends of the pipe shall be
cleaned, preferably with a hard wire brush to remove loose particles.

Two types of joints are normally provided with AC pressure pipes and they are:
a. Cast iron detachable (CID) joints (IS 8794: 1988, (Reaffirmed Year 2022))
b. AC coupling joints (IS 1592: 2003, (Reaffirmed Year 2018))

a) Cast Iron Detachable Joints

This consists of two cast iron flanges, a cast iron central collar and two rubber rings along with a set
of nuts and bolts for the particular joint. For this joint, the AC pipes should have flush ends. For
jointing a flange, a rubber ring and a collar are slipped to the first pipe in that order; a flange and a
rubber ring being introduced from the jointingof the next pipe. Both the pipes are now aligned, the
collar centralised, and the joints of the flanges tightened with nuts and bolts. Figure 11.14 shows Cast
Iron Detachable Joints.

b) Asbestos Cement Coupling Joint

This consists of an AC coupling and three special rubber rings. The pipes for these joints have
chamfered ends. These rubber rings are positioned in the grooves inside the coupling, then grease
is applied on the chamfered end and the pipe and coupling is pushed with the help of a jack against
the pipe. The mouth of the pipe is then placed in the mouth of the coupling end and then pushed so
as to bring the two chamfered ends dose to each other. Wherever necessary, change over from cast
iron pipe to AC pipes or vice versa, should be done with the help of suitable adapters. IS 6530: 1972,
Reaffirmed 2022, may be followed for laying AC pipes. Figure 11.15 shows Asbestos Cement
Coupling Joint.

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Figure 11.14: Cast Iron Detachable Joints Figure 11.15: Asbestos Cement Coupling
Joint

However, in the past, projects implemented with AC pipes joined with an inordinate use of Cast Iron
Detachable (CID) joints in the main water distribution network (limited to be used only in T-points,
bends, etc.) have not only resulted in huge capital cost due to higher cost of the joints than the pipe
material, but also resulted in huge leakages at the joints over time, as Cast Iron joints are prone to
corrosion. Therefore, confirming to BIS IS 1592:2003 (Reaffirmed 2018), the main distribution
network of the water supply scheme should be jointed with the AC coupling and three rubber special
rings fitted inside the coupling as it provides an air- and water-tight grip with leak-proof joints. AC
couplings are economical, non-corrosive, and easy to repair and maintain. During maintenance, the
damaged pipe section can be easily replaced with a light hammer in the joints, the AC coupling can
be broken, and the damaged pipe can be replaced with a new AC pipe. The couplings are also easily
available as they are manufactured in India.

Although, the BIS Code IS 10299:1982 (Reaffirmed 2020) specifies the CI saddle pieces for service
connection in Asbestos Cement Pressure Pipes, DI saddles with epoxy powder coating shall be used
with AC pipe instead of the cast iron detachable (CID) saddle to avoid any corrosion or leakages.

11.6.3 Fittings
When a fitting is used to make a vertical bend, it shall be anchored to a concrete thrust block designed
to have enough weight to resist the upward and outward thrust. Similarly, at joints deflected in vertical
plane, it shall be ensured that the weight of the pipe, the water in the pipe, and the weight of the soil
over the pipe provide resistance to upward movement. If it is not enough, ballast or concrete shall be
placed around the pipe in sufficient weight to counteract the thrust.

Pipes on the slope need to be anchored only when there is a possibility of the backfillaround the pipe
sloping down the hill and carrying the pipe with it. Generally, for slopesup to 30°, good well-drained
soil carefully tampered in layers of 100 mm under and over the pipe, right up to the top of the trench,
will not require anchoring.

Normally, when a pipeline is laid, a certain number of cast iron fittings such as tees, bends, reducers,
etc., and special fittings such as air and sluice valves are required. All cast iron fittings shall be plain-
ended to suit the outside diameter of asbestos cement pressure pipes and to the class and diameter
of pipe manufactured. When using such cast iron fittings, they are joined by cast iron detachable
joints only. For any cast iron specials having flanges, they are jointed in the pipeline with cast iron
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flange adaptors having one end flanged and the other plain-ended. However, DI fittings should be
preferred over CI fittings in all the applications.

11.6.4 Testing of the Pipelines

After all sections have been jointed together on completion of section testing, a test on the complete
pipeline should be carried out. Asbestos cement pipes always absorb a certain amount of water.
Therefore, after the line is filled, it should be allowed to stand for 24 hrs before pressure testing, and
the line shall be again filled. This test should be carried out at a pressure not less than the working
pressure of the pipeline, care being taken to ensure that the pressure at the lowest point in the pipeline
does not exceed the maximum. During the test, an inspection should be made of all work which has
not been subjected to sectional tests. The test pressure shall be gradually raised at the rate of
approximately 1 kg/cm3/min. The duration of the test period, if not specified, shall be sufficient to make
a careful check on the pipeline section. After the test has been completed, the trench shall be filled
back.

The procedure for pressure testing as adopted is as follows:

a) At a time, one section of the pipeline between two sluice valves is taken up for testing. The
section usually taken is about 500 metres long.
b) One of the valves is closed and the water is admitted into the pipe through the other,
manipulating air valves suitably. (If there are no sluice valves in between the section, the end
of the section can be sealed temporarily with an end cap having an outlet which can serve as
an air relief vent of for filling the fine as may be required. The pipeline after it is filled should
be allowed to stand for 24 hours before pressure testing).
c) After filling, the sluice valve is closed and the pipe section is isolated.
d) Pressure gauges are fitted at suitable intervals on the crown into the holes meant for the
purpose.
e) The pipe section is then connected to the delivery side of a pump through a small valve.
f) The pump is then operated till the pressure inside reaches the designed value which can be
read from the pressure gauges fixed.
g) After the required pressure has been attained, the valve is closed and the pump disconnected.
h) The pipe is then kept under the desired pressure during inspection for any defect, i.e.,
leakages at the joints, etc. The water will then be emptied through scour valves and defects
observed in the test will be rectified.

11.6.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of pipe are:
• The inside surface of pipe is smooth.
• The joining of pipes is very good and flexible.
• The pipes are anti-corrosive and cheap in cost.
• Light in weight to handle and transport.
• Least storage cost as it can be stored in open space at worksite and also anti-theft due to its
no resale value.

The disadvantages of pipe are:

• Not suitable for black cotton soil and sulphate contained soil.
• Not suitable for hilly hard rocky terrain.

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11.7 Reinforced Cement Concrete Pipes (RCC)

11.7.1 General
RCC pipes used in water supplies are classified as P1, P2, and P3 with test pressures of 2.0, 4.0,
and 6.0 Kg/cm2 respectively. For use as gravity mains, the working pressure should not exceed two-
third of the test pressure. For use as pumping mains, the working pressure should not exceed half of
the test pressure.

Generally concrete pipes have corrosion-resistant properties similar to those of prestressed concrete
pipes although they have their own features which significantly affect corrosion performance.
Reinforced concrete pipes either spun (centrifugal spinning) or vibrated cast (vibratory processes)
shall be designed such that the maximum tensile stress in the circumferential steel due to specified
hydrostatic test pressure does not exceed the limit of 125 N/mm2 (IS 458:2021) (1274.65 Kgf/cm2) in
the case of mild steel rods, and 140 N/mm2 in the case of hard-drawn steel wires and high strength
deformed steel bars and wires. Centrifugally spun pipes are subjected to high rotational forces during
manufacture with improved corrosion resistance properties. The line of development most likely to
bring concrete pressure pipes into more general acceptance is the use of PSC pipes which are widely
used to replace reinforced concrete pipes.

11.7.2 Laying and Jointing

[Link] Laying
Concrete pipes should be carefully loaded, transported, and unloaded avoiding impact. Free working
space on either side of the pipe shall be provided in the trench which shall not be greater than one-
third of the diameter of the pipe but not less than 150 mm on either side. Pipes should be lowered
into the trench with tackle suitable for the weight of pipes, such as well-designed shear slings with
chain block or mobile crane. While lifting, the position of the sling should be checked when the pipe
is just clear off the ground to ensure proper balance.

In general, the IS 783: 1985, (Reaffirmed Year: 2022) Code of Practice for Laying of Concrete Pipes
may be referred to. Laying of pipes shall proceed upgrade of a slope. If the pipes have spigot and
socket joints the socket ends shall face upstream. The pipes shall be joined in such a way to provide
as little unevenness as possible along the inside of the pipe. Where the natural foundation is
inadequate, the pipes shall be laid in a concrete cradle supported on proper foundation or any other
suitably designed structure. If a concrete cradle is used, the depth of concrete below the bottom of
the pipes shall be at least one-fourth the internal diameter of pipe with the range of 100 mm to 300
mm. It shall extend up to the sides of the pipe at least to a distance of one-fourth the diameter for
larger than 300 mm.

The pipe shall be laid in the concrete bedding before the concrete has set. Trenches shall be back
filled immediately after the pipe has been laid to a depth of 300 mm above the pipe subject to the
condition that the jointing material has hardened (12 hours at the most). The backfill material shall be
free from boulders, roots of trees, etc. The tamping shall be by hand or by other hand operated
mechanical means. The water content of the soil shall be as near the optimum moisture content as
possible. Filling of trench shall be carried on simultaneously on both sides of the pipe to avoid
development of unequal pressures. The back fill shall be rammed in 150 mm layers up to 900 mm
above the top of the pipe.

Where gradient steeper than 1 in 6 is contemplated, consideration should be given to the construction
of suitable transverse anchor blocks. For gradients between 1 in 7 and 1 in 12, the need for transverse

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anchor blocks will depend on ground conditions. For slopes flatter than 1 in 12, there is seldom a
need to provide anchor blocks.
[Link] Jointing
Joints may be of any of the following types:
(i) Bandage joint
(ii) Spigot and socket joint (rigid and semi-flexible)
(iii) Collar joint (rigid and semi-flexible)
(iv) Flush joint (internal and external)

In all pressure pipelines, the recesses at the ends of the pipe shall be filled with jute braiding dipped
in hot bitumen. The quantity of jute and bitumen in the ring shall be just sufficient to fill the recess in
the pipe when pressed hard by jacking or any other suitable method.

The number of pipes that shall be jacked together at a time depends upon the diameter of the pipe
and the bearing capacity of soil. For small pipe up to 250 mm diameter, six pipes can be jacked
together at a time. Before and during jacking, care should be taken to see that there is no offset at
the joint.
Loose collar shall be set up over the joint so as to have an even caulking space all round and into
this caulking space shall be rammed 1:1.5 mixture of cement and sand just sufficiently moistened to
hold together in the form of a clod when compressed in the hand. The caulking shall be so firm that
it shall be difficult to drive the point of a penknife into it. The caulking shall be employed at both the
ends in a slope of 1:1. In the case of non-pressure pipes the recess at the end of the pipes shall be
filled with cement mortar 1:2 instead of jute braiding soaked in bitumen. It shall be kept wet for 10
days for maturing.

A. Rigid Joints
In this, the water seal is affected by cement mortar or similar material which will not allow any
movement between the two pipes.

Socket and Spigot Joint: The annular space between socket and spigot is filled with cement mortar
(1:2). This joint is used for a low-pressure pipeline. Figure 11.16 shows a spigot and socket joint.

Collar Joint: Collars of 150 to 200 mm wide cover the joint between two pipes. A slightly damp
mixture of cement and sand is rammed with caulking tool. Figure 11.17 shows collar joint (rigid).

Figure 11.16: Spigot and Socket Joint Figure 11.17: Collar Joint (Rigid)

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Flush Joint

Internal Flush joint – This joint is generally used for culvert pipes of 900 mm diameter and over. The
ends of the pipes are specially shaped to form a self-centring joint with an internal jointing space 1–
3 cm wide. The finished joint is flush with both inside and outside with the pipe wall. The jointing
space is filled with cement mortar mixed sufficiently dry to remain in position when forced with a
trowel or rammer.

External Flush Joint – This joint is suitable for pipes which are too small for jointing from inside. Great
care shall be taken in handling to ensure that the projecting ends are not damaged, as no repairs can
be readily effected from inside the pipe. Details of the joint are shown in Figure 11.18 below.

Figure 11.18: Internal and External Flush Joint

B. Flexible Joints
The water seal is effected because of compact pressure between the sealing rubber ring (or similar
material) and the pipe surface. These are mainly two types.
Roll on Joint – A rubber ring (circular in cross-section) is placed at or near the end of the spigot and
rolls along it as the spigot enters the socket.

Confined Gasket – Rubber ring of circular cross-section is held in the groove formed on the spigot.
Sometimes, the cross-section is in the shape of a lip. The lips are opened due to water pressure
which ensures water seal. For assembly of this joint, a lubricant has to be applied to the sliding
surfaces. The lubricant washes off when the pipe is in service. Figure 11.19 shows a confined O-ring
joint and roll on joint.

Figure 11.19: Confined O-ring joint and Roll on Joint

All pipelines should be tested before being brought into service. When testing the pipeline
hydraulically, the line shall be kept filled completely with water for a week. The pressure shall then
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cast iron pipe and maintained at this pressure during the period of test with the permissible allowance
indicated therein.

11.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of pipe are:
• Good corrosion resistance,
• Widespread availability,
• High strength,
• Good load supporting capacity.
The disadvantages of pipe are:
• Require careful installation to avoid cracking,
• Heavy,
• Susceptible to attack from aggressive soils,
• Poor adaptability in installation,
• Making house connection is difficult as it is difficult to fix in ferrule which may cause leakage
and weak connection.

11.8 Prestressed Concrete Pipes (PSC)

11.8.1 General
While reinforced cement concrete (RCC) pipes can cater to the needs where pressures are up to 6
kg/cm2 and CI and steel pipes cater to the needs of higher pressures around 24 kg/cm2, the
prestressed concrete (PSC) pipes cater to intermediate pressure range, where RCC pipes would not
be suitable.

The strength of a PSC pipe is achieved by helically winding high tensile steel wire under tension
around a concrete core thereby putting the core into compression. When the pipe is pressurised, the
stresses induced relieve the compressive stress, but they are not sufficient to subject the core to
tensile stresses. The prestress wire is protected against corrosion by a surrounding of cementitious
cover coat giving at least 18 mm thick cover. The PSC pipes are suited for water supply mains where
pressures in the range of 6 kg/cm2 to 20 kg/cm2 are encountered.

Two types of PSC pipes are in use:

(i) Cylinder-type: Consists of a concrete lined steel cylinder monolith with other parts to be joint
to cylinder. Steel joint rings welded to its ends wrapped with a helix of highly stressed wire
and coated with dense cement mortar or concrete. Prestressed concrete cylinder pipe has
the following two general types of construction:
a. a steel cylinder lined with a concrete core; or
b. a steel cylinder embedded in a concrete core.
In either type of construction, manufacturing begins with a full-length welded steel cylinder.
Joint rings are attached to each end and the cylinder is hydrostatically tested to ensure water
tightness. A concrete core with a minimum thickness of one-sixteenth times the pipe diameter,
or as per IS 784-2019, is placed either by the centrifugal process, radial compaction, or by
vertical casting. After the core is cured, the pipe is helically wrapped with high strength, hard-
drawn wire using a stress of 75 per cent of the minimum specified tensile strength. The
wrapping stress is calculated on the basis of 75% the value of minimum ultimate tensile
strength as per IS 1785: 1983, Reaffirmed 2018. The wire spacing is accurately controlled to

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produce a predetermined residual compression in the concrete core. The wire is embedded
in a thick cement slurry and coated with a dense mortar that is rich in cement content.
The joints between PSC (cylinder-type) pipe will be site welded joint/rubber ring joint.
Size Range: Effective length of cylindrical pipe shall be up to 7.0 m. However, for pipes of
diameter up to and including 300 mm, the effective length shall not exceed 3.0 m. Nominal
internal diameter for cylindrical pipes is varying from 200 mm to 2500 mm (IS 784: 2019).
The technology for manufacture of these pipes is now available with Indian manufacturers.
(ii) Non-cylinder type: Consists of a concrete core which is pre-compressed both in longitudinal
and circumferential directions by a highly stressed wire. The wire wrapping is protected by a
coat of cement mortar or concrete.
Physical behaviour of PSC pipes under internal and external load is superior to RCC pipes.
The PSC pipe wall is always in a state of compression which is the most favourable factor for
permeability. These pipes can resist high external loads. The protective cover of cement and
mortar which covers the tensioned wire wrapping by its ability to create and maintain alkaline
environment around the steel inhibits corrosion. PSC pipes are joined with flexible rubber
rings.
The deflection possible during laying of main is relatively small and the pipes cannot be cut
to size to close gaps in the pipeline. Special closure units (consisting of a short double spigot
piece and a plain-ended concrete lined/anti-corrosive food grade paint steel tube with a
follower ring assembled at each end) are manufactured for this purpose. The closure unit
(minimum length 1.27 m) must be ordered specially to the exact length.
Specials such as bends, bevel pipes, flanged tees, tapers, and adapters to flange the
couplings are generally fabricated as mild steel fittings lined and coated with concrete/anti-
corrosive food grade paint. It is worthwhile when designing the pipeline to make provision for
as many branches as are likely to be required in the future and then to install sluice valves or
blank flanges on these branches. It is possible to make connections to the installed pipeline
by emptying, breaking out, and using a special closure unit.

11.8.2 Laying and Jointing

PSC non-cylinder pressure pipes are provided with flexible joints; the joints being made by the use
of rubber gasket. They have socket spigot ends to suit the rubber ring joint. The rubber gasket is
intended to keep the joint watertight under all normal conditions of service including expansion,
contraction, and normal earth settlement. The quality of rubber used for the gasket should be
waterproof, flexible, and should have a low permanent set. Figure 11.20 shows PSC (Non-Cylinder
Type) Pipe Confined Joint Details and Figure 11.21 shows PSC (Non-Cylinder Type) Pipe Roll on
Joint Details.

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Figure 11.20: PSC (Non-Cylinder Type) Pipe Confined Joint Details

Figure 11.21: PSC (Non-Cylinder Type) Pipe Roll on Joint Details

Unless otherwise specified, joints between PSC cylinder pipes shall be of spigot and socket-type with
a rubber ring or with steel joint rings embedded at the ends for site welding. In case of pipes for
culverts, joints may be spigot and socket, roll on gasket joint, confined gasket joint or flush joint. The
rubber ring joint design shall take into consideration the tolerance for rubber cord, tolerance for socket
and spigot diameters, allowable deflection at joint and permanent set in the rubber ring. Figure 11.22
shows PCCP Pipe Sliding Overlap Welded Joint and Figure 11.23 PCCP Pipe Confined Rubber Ring
Joint.

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Figure 11.22: PCCP Pipe Sliding Overlap Welded Joint

Figure 11.23: PCCP Pipe Confined Rubber Ring Joint

The sealing rings shall be of such size that when jointed, it shall provide a positive seal within the
recommended range of maximum joint deflection not more than two splices in each ring shall be
permitted.

The steel for fabricated steel plate specials, is cut, shaped, and welded so that the finished special
has the required shape and internal dimension. Adjacent segments are joined by butt welding. Before
lining and coating, the welding of specials shall be tested by use of hot oil or dye penetrant according
to IS 3658: 1999, Reaffirmed 2020, and defects, if any, shall be rectified. The steel plate thickness
for specials shall be as given in IS 1916. In dye penetrant inspection, a whitewash is applied over the
weld on one side of the cylinder, on other side when coloured paraffin or similar product is applied
over the weld, no coloured spot shall appear on the whitewash before 4 hrs. If any coloured spots
appear before 4 hours, weld shall be repaired and retested.

The special shall be jointed to the pipe by same rubber ring joint as for pipes.

11.8.3 Testing of Pipelines

The pressure testing of PSC cylinder and non-cylinder pipes is the same as mentioned above at
testing of the pipeline section under cast iron pipe. However, the quantity of water added in order
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to re-establish the test pressure should not exceed three litres (instead of 0.1 litres) per mm
diameter, per km per 24 hours per 30 m head for non-absorbent pipes as per IS 783:1985,
Reaffirmed 2022. The field test pressure shall be maintained for one hour. If the visual inspection
indicates that there is no leakage, the test can be passed.

11.8.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of pipe are:
• Good corrosion resistance,
• Widespread availability,
• High strength,
• Good load supporting capacity,
• Suitable for higher diameter pipeline (more than 1200 mm),
• Suitable for use in corrosive environment.
The disadvantages of pipe are:
• Require careful installation to avoid cracking,
• Heavy,
• Susceptible to attack from aggressive soils,
• Poor adaptability in installation,
• Difficult to repair and additional machine ends (sockets, spigots, barrels, etc.) need to be kept
in inventory.

11.9 Bar/Wire Wrapped Steel Cylinder Pipes with Mortar Lining and Coating

11.9.1 General
Bar/Wire wrapped steel cylinder pipes with mortar lining and coating are available in diameters of
250 mm to 1900 mm and higher diameter pipes can be designed for working pressures up to 25
kgs/cm2. Effective length of pipes shall be 4 m to 8 m. Longer length pipes can also be custom made.
The manufacturer shall declare the length of pipe for any given design and the tolerance shall be
applicable to that.

Manufacture of bar/wire wrapped steel cylinder pipes with mortar lining and coating begins with
fabrication of a thin steel pipe cylinder. Thicker steel joint rings are welded at both ends. Each steel
cylinder is hydrostatically tested. A cement mortar lining is placed by centrifugal process inside the
cylinder. After the lining is cured by steam or water, mild steel rod is wrapped on the cylinder using
moderate tension in the bar. The wrapping is to be done under controlled tension ensuring intimate
contact with the cylinder. The cylinder and bar wrapping are covered with a cement slurry and a
dense mortar coating that is rich in cement. The coating is cured by steam or water.

A welded steel sheet cylinder, which may be with steel socket and spigot rings welded to its ends for
rubber ring joints or with steel rings welded to its ends for welded joints, lined with cement mortar
centrifugally applied within the steel cylinder and spigot ring, with reinforcement consisting of
continuous steel bar/wire helically wound around the outside of the cylinder and securely fastened
by welding to the steel socket and spigot/joint rings, and subsequently coated with dense cement
mortar covering the steel cylinder and bar/wires except for necessarily exposed socket and spigot
joints rings. Figure 11.24 shows typical longitudinal section.

The wall thickness shall not be less than the design thickness by more than 5 per cent or 5 mm
whichever is greater. The manufacturer shall declare the wall thickness for any given design.
Tolerance on length of pipe shall be +2.5 per cent and -1 per cent of the specified length. The cement
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mortar coating shall provide a minimum cover of 19 mm over the bar/wire reinforcement or 25 mm
over the cylinder, whichever is greater (as per IS 15155:2020).

Figure 11.24: Typical Longitudinal Section

The purchaser may specify the application of an external or internal bituminous epoxy or other
approved coating to be applied. When the pipes are to be used for carrying potable water, the inside
lining shall not contain any constituents soluble in such water or any ingredient which could impart
any taste or odour to the potable water.

11.9.2 Laying and Jointing

The standard joint consists of steel joint rings and a continuous solid rubber ring gasket. The field
joint can be overlapping/sliding, butt welded or with confined rubber ring as per the client’s
requirement. In the case of welded and rubber joints, the exterior joint recess is normally grouted,
and the internal joint space may or may not be pointed with mortar. These pipes can be laid in black
cotton soil with additional precautions in bedding.

11.9.3 Testing of Pipelines

The pressure testing of BWSC pipes is the same as mentioned above at testing of the pipeline section
under cast iron pipe. However, the quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test pressure
should not exceed three litres (instead of 0.1 litres) per mm dia. per km per 24 hours per 30 m head
as per the (IS 783:1985, Reaffirmed 2022).

The field test pressure shall be maintained for one hour. If the visual inspection indicates that there
is no leakage, the test can be passed.

11.9.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of pipe are:
• Pipes are having semi-rigid or semi-metallic properties and resistant to impact.
• Stiffer than conventional steel pipes.
• Corrugated surface increases its structural stability.
The disadvantages of the pipe are:
• Heavier than pipes like DI, HDPE, PVC, GRP pipes which makes it difficult to handle.
• Rough handling may damage the outer coat or inner lining.

11.10 Plastic Pipes

Plastic pipes are produced by extrusion process followed by calibration to ensure maintenance of
accurate internal diameter with smooth internal bores. These pipes generally come in lengths of 6

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metres. A wide range of injection moulded fittings, including tees, elbows, reducers, caps, pipe
saddles, inserts and threaded adapters for pipe sizes up to 200 mm are available.

In house installations, plastic pipes cannot be used for electrical earthing being a non-conductive
material. In colder climates, plastic pipes cannot be softened by conventional and electric equipment.
Where pumps are used with plastics pipes, starting, and stopping are the occasions when damage
may occur. The water hammer causes compression of the water in the pipe and consequently results
in stretching of the pipe and where necessary, pressure relief devices should be included in the
pipelines. Accurate records of laying of plastic pipes are very essential as they cannot be located by
conventional electronic pipe locators.

In order to take care of the possible deteriorating effect by direct sunlight, it should be prevented by
direct exposure to sunlight. For carefully executed installations using properly manufactured plastic
pipes, no taste and odour problems should normally be encountered while in operation. The quality
of plastic pipes should also be checked for its suitability from a bacteriological point of view.

11.10.1 PVC Pipes

[Link] General
The PVC pipes are much lighter than conventional pipe materials. Because of their lightweight, PVC
pipes are easy to handle, transport, and install. Solvent cementing technique for jointing PVC pipe
lengths is cheaper, more efficient, and far simpler. PVC pipes do not become pitted or tuberculated
and are unaffected by fungi and bacteria and are resistant to a wide range of chemicals. They are
immune to galvanic and electrolytic attack, a problem frequently encountered in metal pipes,
especially when burned in corrosive soils or near brackish waters. PVC pipes have elastic properties
and their resistance to deformation resulting from earth movements is superior compared to
conventional pipe materials especially AC. Thermal conductivity of PVC is very low compared to
metals. Consequently, water transported in these pipes remains at a more uniform temperature.

Rigid PVC pipes weigh only one-fifth of conventional steel pipes of comparable sizes. PVC pipes are
available in sizes of outer dia. 20, 25, 32, 50, 63, 75, 90, 110, 140, 160, 250, 290, and 315 mm at
working pressures of 2, 5 ,4, 6, 10 Kg/cm2 as per IS 4985 – 1988, Reaffirmed 2015. The wall of the
plain pipe shall not transmit more than 0.2 per cent of the visible light falling on it when tested in
accordance with IS 12235 (Part 1-19): 2004, Reaffirmed 2019.

Since deterioration and decomposition of plastics are accelerated by ultraviolet light and frequent
changes in temperature which are particularly severe in India, it is not advisable to use PVC pipes
above ground. The deterioration starts with discolouration, surface cracking, and ultimately ends with
brittleness, and the life of the pipe may be reduced to 15–20 years.

Because of their light weight, there may be a tendency for the PVC pipes to be thrown much more
than their metal counterparts. This should be discouraged, and reasonable care should be taken in
handling and storing to prevent damage to the pipes. Under no circumstances should the pipes be
dragged along the ground. Pipes should be given adequate support at all times. These pipes should
not be stacked in large piles, especially under warm temperature conditions, as the bottom pipes may
be structurally distorted thus increasing the difficulty in pipe alignment and jointing. For temporary
storage in the field, where racks are not provided, care should be taken that the ground is level, and
free from loose stones. Pipes stored thus should not exceed three layers and should be so stacked
as to prevent movement. It is also recommended not to store one pipe inside another. It is advisable
to follow the practices mentioned as per IS 7634 (Part 1): 1975, Reaffirmed 2017 and IS 7634 (Part
3):2003, Reaffirmed 2018.
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[Link] Laying and Jointing

A. Laying
The trench bottom should be carefully examined for the presence of hard objects such as flints, rocks,
projections, or tree roots. In uniform, relatively soft fine-grained soils found to be free of such objects
and where the trench bottom can readily be brought to an even finish providing a uniform support for
the pipes over their lengths, the pipes may normally be laid directly on the trench bottom. In other
cases, the trench should be cut correspondingly deeper and the pipes laid on a prepared under-
bedding, which may be drawn from the excavated material if suitable.

The trench bed must be free from any rock projections. The trench bottom, where it is rocky and
uneven, a layer of sand or alluvial earth equal to one-third diameter of the pipe or 100 mm, whichever
is less, should be provided under the pipes.

As a rule, trenching should not be carried out too far ahead of pipe laying. The trench should be as
narrow as practicable. This may be kept from 0.30 m over the outside diameter of pipe and depth
may be kept at 0.60–1.0 m depending upon traffic conditions. Pipe lengths are placed end to end
along the trench. The glued spigot and socket jointing technique as mentioned later is adopted. The
jointed lengths are then lowered in the trench and when sufficient length has been laid, the trench is
filled.

In laying long lengths of pipe, prefabricated double socketed connections are frequently used to join
successive pipe lengths of either the same or one different size. The socket in this case must be
formed over a steel mandrel. A short length of pipe is flared at both ends and used as the socket
connection. The mandrel used is sized such that the internal dia. of the flared socket matches the
outer dia. of the spigot to be connected.

If trucks, lorries, or other heavy traffic will pass across the pipeline, concrete tiles 600 × 600 mm of
suitable thickness and reinforcement should be laid about 2.0 m above the pipe to distribute the load.
If the pipeline crosses a river, the pipe should be buried at least 2.0 m below bed level to protect the
pipe. Individual pedestal approach may also be followed in those cases of long stretches of the river.
The pipeline may also be laid down attached with the bridge piers across the river.

For bending, the cleaned pipe is filled with sand and compacted by tapping with wooden stick and
pipe ends plugged. The pipe section is heated with flame and the portion bent as required. The bend
is then cooled with water, the plug removed, the sand poured out and the pipe (bend) cooled again.
Heating in hot air over hot oil bath, hot gas or other heating devices are also practised. Joints may
be heat-welded, flamed, with rubber gaskets, or made with solvent cement. Threaded joints are also
feasible, but are not recommended.
[Link] Jointing
A socket and spigot joint is usually preferred for all PVC pipes up to 150 mm in dia. The socket length
should at least be one and a half times the outer dia. for sizes up to 100 mm dia., and equal to the
outer dia. for larger sizes.

Jointing of PVC pipes can be made in following ways:

(i) Solvent cement
(ii) Rubber ring joint
(iii) Flanged joint
(iv) Threaded joint
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Figure 11.25: PVC Solvent Welded Joint

Figure 11.26: Sealing Ring Joint Assembly

Figure 11.27: Threaded Joints with PVC

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Figure 11.28: Flanged Joints with PVC

The Figure 11.25 above shows PVC solvent welded joint, Figure 11.26 shows sealing ring joint
assembly, Figure 11.27 shows threaded joints with PVC, and Figure 11.28 shows flanged joints with
PVC.

For pipe installation, solvent gluing is preferable to welding. The glued spigot socket connection has
greater strength than can ever be achieved by welding. The surfaces to be glued are thoroughly
scoured with dry cloth and preferably chamfered to 30o. If the pipes have become heavily
contaminated by grease or oil, methylene cement is evenly applied with a brush to the outside surface
of the spigot on one pipe, and to the inside of the socket on the other. The spigot is then inserted
immediately in the socket up to the shoulder and thereafter, a quarter (90o) turn is given to evenly
distribute the cement over the treated surface. The excess cement which is pushed out of the socket
must be removed at once with a clean cloth. Jointing must be carried out in minimum possible time;
time of making complete joint not being more than one minute. Joints should not be disturbed for at
least five minutes. Half strength is attained in 30 minutes and full in 24 hours. Gluing should be
avoided in rainy or foggy weather, as the colour of glue will turn cloudy and milky as a result of water
contamination.

Normally, PVC pipes should not be threaded. For the connections of PVC pipes to metal pipes, a
piece of a special thick wall PVC connecting tube threaded at one end is used. The other end is
connected to the normal PVC pipe by means of a glued spigot and socket joint. Before installation,
the condition of the threads should be carefully examined for cracks and impurities. Glue can be used
for making the joints leak proof. Yarn and other materials generally used with metal pipe and fittings
should not be used. Generally, it is advisable to use PVC as the spigot portion of the joint.
For further details on laying and jointing of PVC pipes, reference may be made to IS 4985 -2000,
Reaffirmed 2015, IS 7634 (Part 1):1975 Reaffirmed 2017, IS 7634 (Part 2): 2012, Reaffirmed 2017
and IS 7634 (Part 3):2003, Reaffirmed 2018.

Testing of pipelines
The pressure testing method, which is commonly in use, is filling the pipe with water, taking care to
evacuate any entrapped air and slowly raising the system to appropriate test pressure. The pressure

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