Unit V

Reference Models
1.1 OSI Reference Model
Layered Architecture
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data link (layer
2), network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and
application (layer 7) as shown in fig.

Fig 4.2: - OSI Mode Layers

In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of transmitting data to its
most fundamental elements. They identified which networking functions had related
uses and collected those functions into discrete groups that became the layers. Each
layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining
and localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is
both comprehensive and flexible. Most importantly, the OSI model allows complete
interoperability between incompatible systems.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that are applied at
the seven layers as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be choosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be choosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy
Peer-to- Peer Processes
Peer: “Peers are computer systems which are connected to each other via the Internet.
Files can be shared directly between systems on the network without the need of a
central server. In other words, each computer on a Peer to Peer network becomes a
file server as well as a client.”
At the physical layer, communication is direct: In Figure, device A sends a stream of
bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). Each layer in the sending device adds
its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes
the whole package to the layer just below it.
At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the
receiving device. At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer,
with each process receiving and removing the data meant for it.
 Fig: - The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Interfaces between Layers
The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface
defines the information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it.
Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network. As
long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the specific
implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without requiring
changes to the surrounding layers.
Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines
what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
“It is set of rules and conventions. Sender and receiver in data communication
must agree on common set of rules before they can communicate with each
other.”
The key elements of a protocol are:
a) Syntax (what is to be communicated)
b) Semantics (how is it to be communicated)
c) Timing (When it should be communicated)
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data,
meaning the order in which they are presented. For example, a simple
protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of
the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits. How are a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to
be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does an address
identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should
be sent and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces
data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
Organization of the Layers
The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers 1, 2,
and 3-physical, data link, and network-are the network support layers; they deal
with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as
electrical specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport
timing and reliability). Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-
can be thought of as the user support layers; they allow interoperability among
unrelated software systems. Layer 4, the transport layer ensures end-to-end
reliable data transmission, links the two subgroups and ensures that what the
lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The
upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are a
combination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer, which is
mostly hardware.
In Figure, which gives an overall view of the OSI layers, D7 means the data unit
at layer 7, D6 means the data unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer
7 (the application layer), then moves from layer to layer in descending, sequential
order. At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added to the data unit.
Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2. When the formatted data unit
passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into an electromagnetic
signal and transported along a physical link.

Fig: - An exchange using the OSI model

Encapsulation
The protocols operating at the various layers work together to supply a unified
quality of service. Each protocol layer provides a service to the layers directly
above and below it. The process of adding the headers and trailers to the data is
called as data encapsulation. A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated
in a packet at level 6. The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at
level 5, and so on. In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries
the whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level N. The concept
is called encapsulation. The level N-1 is not aware of which part of the
encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header or trailer. For level N-1,
the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one integral unit.

Fig: - Encapsulation in OSI Model

Layers of the OSI Reference Model (Functions and Features of each Layer) –
Physical Layer, Data-ink Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session Layer,
Presentation Layer, Application Layer.
Horizontal communication

Fig: Horizontal Communication in OSI Model.

1) The horizontal communication is the logical connection between the layers, there
is no direct communication between them.
2) Information included in each protocol header by the transmitting system is a
message that will be carried to the same protocol in the destination system.
3) For two computers to communicate over a n/w, the protocol used at each layer of
the OSI model in the transmitting system must be duplicated at the receiving system.
4) The packet travels up through the protocol stack and each successive header is
stripped off by the appropriate protocol & processed.
5) When the packet arrived at its destination, the process by which the headers are
applied at the source is repeated in server.
Vertical communication:
1) In addition to communicating horizontally with the same protocol in the other
system, the header information also enables each layer to communicate with the layer
above & below it.
2) Eg. The n/w layer will communicate with the data link layer & transport layer.
3) This interlayer communication is called vertical communication.
4) When a system receives a packet & passes it up through various layers the data
link layer protocol header includes a field which specifies the name of n/w layer
protocol to be used to process the packet.
5) The n/w layer protocol header will specify the name of transport layer protocol to
be used to process the packet.
6) Due to vertical communication, it becomes protocol at each layer simultaneously.

Fig: Vertical communication

1. Layers of the OSI Reference Model (Functions and Features of each Layer)
OSI model is a layered frame work for the design of network systems that allows for
communication across all types of computer systems.
1) Physical layer:
Provides physical interface for transmission of information. Defines rules by which
bits are passed from one system to another on a physical communication medium. It
co-ordinates the functions required to transmit bit stream over physical medium. It
deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of interface and transmission
medium. For transmission, it defines procedures and functions that devices and
transmission medium has to perform.
Purpose
 Deals with the transmission of 0s and 1s over the physical media
 Translation of bits into signals
Functions
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media.
 Representation of bits: Data rate (transmission rate).
 Synchronization of bits.
 Line configuration: Point to point or multipoint configuration should be used.
2) Data link layer:
It is responsible for transmitting group of bits between the adjacent nodes. The group
of bits is called as frame. The network layer passes a data unit to the data link layer.
Header and trailer is added to the data unit by data link layer. This data unit is passed
to the physical layer.
Data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.
Purpose
 Manages the flow of data over the physical media
 Responsible for error-free transmission over the physical media
 Assures error-free data submission to the Network Layer
Functions
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Error correction
 Media access control
 Node to node delivery
3) Network layer:
Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network. Defines the most
optimal path the packet should take from the source to the destination. Defines logical
addressing so that any endpoint can be identified. Handles congestion in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between dissimilar networks (Internetworking). The
network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to put up
different media. It is responsible for routing the packets within the subnet i.e. from
source to destination. It is responsible for source to destination delivery of individual
packets across multiple networks. It ensures that packet is delivered from point of
origin to destination.
Purpose
– Addressing and routing the packets
Functions
 Logical addressing
  Routing.
 Congestion control
 Accounting and billing
 Address transformation
 Source host to destination host error free delivery of packet.
4) Transport layer:
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message. A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network
layer supervises source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as
though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The
transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives complete
and in order, managing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination
level.
Purpose
– Repackage proper and efficient delivery of packages
• Error free
• In sequence
• Without duplication
Functions
1) Service point addressing
2) Segmentation and reassembly
3) Connection control
4) Flow control: Flow control is performed end to end
5) Error control/correction
5) Session layer:
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are
not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end
systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications. This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on
an end-user’s request. Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by
this layer. Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection. This layer
provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half duplex.
Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of
some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last
checkpoint.
Purpose
– Oversee a communication session
• Establish
• Maintain
• Terminate
Functions
1) Dialog control
2) Synchronization, session and sub session
3) Session closure
6) Presentation layer:
 It is concerned with syntax, semantics of information exchanged between the two
systems.
Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between the
two communicating entities. Also, handles data compression and data encryption
(cryptography).
(i) Data Encryption
 For ensuring the security and privacy of the information that is being
communicated, a process is called data encryption.
 Data encryption is carried out at the sending signal. In this the sender transforms
the original information to another form and sends the transformed information.
 Data encryption ensures the security of the data as it travels down the protocol
stack.
 For example, one of the most popular encryption schemes that is usually associated
with the presentation layer is the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol. Not all
encryption is done at layer however; some encryption is often done at lower layers in
the protocol stack, in technologies such as IPSec.
(ii) Data Compression
 The data compression technique is used for reducing the number of bits required to
send information.
 Compression improve the throughput of data
 Data compression is essential for transmission of multimedia such as text, audio,
video.
Purpose
– Formats data for exchange between points of communication
Functions
•Protocol conversion
•Data translation
•Data Encryption
•Data Encoding
•Character set conversion
•Expansion of graphics command
•Data compression
7) Application layer:
Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI
model. The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access
the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distributed information services.
Purpose
– User application to network service interface
Functions
 Network virtual terminal,
 File transfer access and management,
 Mail services
 Directory services
1.2 TCP/IP Model
Layered Architecture

TCP/IP Reference Model: TCP/IP means transmission control protocol and internet
protocol.
Overview of TCP/IP reference model
TCP/IP that is transmission control protocol and the internet protocol was developed
by Department of Défense’s Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) under
the project of network interconnection.
Most widely used protocol for interconnecting computers and it is the protocol of the
internet. It has 4 layers as given below.
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1. Protocol is used to connect the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
2. Varies host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless
internetwork layer is called internet layer.
2. It the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It allows the host to insert the packets.
4. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
5. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
6. IP (internet protocol) is used in this layer.
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data done by layer
four that is transport layer.
3. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer.
4. Functions of the transport layer are same as the OSI model.
5. Transport layer also arrange the packets sent in sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
1. Protocols used in this layer are high level protocols such as TELNET, FTP (file
transfer protocol) etc.
1 Data Link Layer:
Nodes and links
Communication at the data-link layer is node-to-node. A data unit from one point in
the Internet needs to pass through many networks (LANs and WANs) to reach another
point. Theses LANs and WANs are connected by routers. It is customary to refer to the
two end hosts and the routers as nodes and the networks in between as links. Figure is
a simple representation of links and nodes when the path of the data unit is only six
nodes.

The first node is the source host; the last node is the destination host. The other
four nodes are four routers. The first, the third, and the fifth links represent the three
LANs; the second and the fourth links represent the two WANs.
Services
i. Framing: Adding headers & trailers to the packet received from network
layer & convert it in frame.
ii. Addressing: Source MAC Address & destination MAC address is added
with frame which can guide to the frame for forwarding the frame one node to
another
iii. Flow control: Ensures about the synchronization of transmitting & receiving
system which results in transmission of data without any loss
iv. Error control: under data link layer error detection is done on parity check
basis & as far as correction is concern receiving system will request sender system to
resend once again.
v. Media access control: the media which are in share is controlled by applying
media access control methods such as CSMA/CD OR TOKEN RING, TOKEN
PASSING etc.
Two Categories of Links
There are Two Categories of Links POINT-TO-POINT LINK and A BROADCAST
LINK
In a POINT-TO-POINT LINK, the link is dedicated to the two devices.
In A BROADCAST LINK, the link is shared between several pairs of devices.
For example, when two friends use the traditional home phones to chat, they are using
A POINT-TO-POINT LINK; when the same two friends use their cellular phones,
they are using A BROADCAST LINK (the air is shared among many cell phone
users).
Two Sublayers
The Data Link Layer divides into two sublayers: Data Link Control (DLC) and Media
Access Control (MAC).
The Data Link Control sublayer deals with all issues common to both point-to-point
and broadcast links; the Media Access Control sub-layer deals only with issues
specific to broadcast links.
These two types of links at the data-link layer, as shown in Figure.

Link Layer Addressing:

Link layer address is also known as a link address, a physical address, and a MAC
address.
The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. They uniquely
identify an on a LAN or WAN.
MAC address is 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits) in length by convention,
MAC address is usually written in one of the following two formats:
MM:MM:MM: SS: SS: SS
OR
MM-MM-MM-SS- SS- SS
The half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacture. These
ID’s regulated by an Internet Standards body. The Second half of a MAC address
represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer.
Example
07:01:02: 01:2C:4B
Three Types of Addresses
Link-Layer Protocols define three types of addresses: Unicast, Multicast, and
Broadcast.
Unicast Address
Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address. Unicasting means
one-to-one communication. A frame with a unicast address destination is destined only
for one entity in the link.
Any Mac address starts with 00 is known as Unicast address
00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
Multicast Address
Some link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting means one-to-many
communication. However, the jurisdiction is local (inside the link).
Any Mac address starts with 01 is known as Multicast
01 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
Broadcast Address
Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast address. Broadcasting means one-to-all
communication. A frame with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in
the link.
Any Mac address starts with FF is known as Broadcast
FF : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
Address resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. ARP converts an Internet Protocol
address to its physical network address (MAC). ARP was defined by RFC 826 in
1982. It operates at layer 2 of the OSI model.
Functions:
 i. Local host maintains the ARP Table. ARP maps the Internet Protocol address
(IP)to a physical machine address.
ii. It provides the interface between the IP addressing system used by IP and the
Hardware addresses used by the data link layer protocol.
iii. ARP broadcasts an IP address in an effort to discover its equivalent hardware
address.
iv. ARP has been implemented with many combinations of network and data link
layer technologies.
v. Responsible for ARP query and ARP response datagram.
vi. Maintains ARP cache so that if the same query has been processed earlier,
new broadcast message is not created but, it checks in the ARP cache.

Fig: ARP Operation

Network Layer:
Addresses:
address space
A protocol like IPv4 that defines addresses has an address space. An Address Space is
the total number of addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses b bits to define
an address, the address space is 2b because each bit can have two different values (0 or
1). IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232
or 4,294,967,296 (more than four billion). If there were no restrictions, more than 4
billion devices could be connected to the Internet.
Classful and Classless Addressing
Classful Addressing
The IPv4 addresses are classified into 5 types as follows:
1 Class A
2 Class B
3 Class C
4 Class D
5 Class E
 Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only. The IP range
127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.
IP Address is divided in to Network Portion and Host Portion

Class A is written as N.H.H.H

Class B is written as N.N.H.H

Class C is written as N.N.N.H

First First Byte Network Host Number of Number of

Class
Bits Values ID Bits ID Bits Networks Hosts

A 0 1 - 126 8 24 126 16,77,214

B 10 128 -191 16 16 16,384 65,534

C 110 192 - 223 24 8 2,097,152 254

NOH= 2n where n= host ID bits
NON= 2m-i where m = no of network ID bits, i= no of first bits

Private IP Address Range

Class Network Address

A [Link] through [Link]

B [Link] through [Link]

C [Link] through [Link]

Classless Addressing
There are three main problems with “classful” addressing, which are somewhat related
to each other (making them a bit harder to explain).
1 Lack of Internal Address Flexibility: Big organizations are assigned large,
“monolithic” blocks of addresses that don't match well the structure of their underlying
internal networks.
2 Inefficient Use of Address Space: The existence of only three block sizes (classes A,
B and C) leads to waste of limited IP address space.
3 Proliferation of Router Table Entries: As the Internet grows, more and more
entries are required for routers to handle the routing of IP datagrams, which causes
performance problems for routers. Attempting to reduce inefficient address space
allocation leads to even more router table entries.
The Internet authorities announced a new architecture called classless addressing. In
classless addressing, variable-length blocks are used that belong to no classes.
In classful addressing the whole address space was divided into five classes. Although
each organization was granted one block in class A, B, or C, the size of the blocks was
predefined; the organization needed to choose one of the three block sizes. The only
block in class D and the only block in class E were reserved for a special purpose. In
classless addressing, the whole address space is divided into variable length blocks.
Theoretically, we can have a block of 20, 21, 22, . . . , 232 addresses. The only
restriction is that the number of addresses in a block needs to be a power of 2. An
organization can be granted one block of addresses. Figure shows the division of the
whole address space into nonoverlapping blocks.

Figure: Variable-length blocks in classless addressing

Transport Layer Protocol:

transport layer services
1) Service point addressing
2) Segmentation and reassembly
3) Connection control
4) Flow control: Flow control is performed end to end
5) Error control
Connectionless and Connection-Oriented Protocol
Connection –oriented services: It is modelled after telephone system.
Connection-oriented communication includes the steps of setting up a call from one
computer to another, transmitting/receiving data, and then releasing the call, just like a
voice phone call. However, the network connecting the computers is a packet
switched network, unlike the phone system's circuit switched network. Connection-
oriented communication is done in one of two ways over a packet switched network:
with and without virtual circuits.
The connection-oriented service is provided by TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol).
To use connection-oriented service, the service user first establishes a connection, uses
the connection, and then releases the connection.
Connectionless service: It is modelled after postal system.
Connectionless communication is just packet switching where no call establishment
and release occur. A message is broken into packets, and each packet is transferred
separately. Moreover, the packets can travel different route to the destination since
there is no connection. Connectionless service is typically provided by the UDP (User
Datagram Protocol), which we will examine later. The packets transferred using
UDP are also called datagrams.

5.3 Introduction- Addressing mechanism in the Internet IP Addressing –

IP (internet protocol address): -
 Def: - “IP address is a logical address, 32 bit address having netid & hostid that
uniquely & universally identified over TCP/IP network or local network or to internet.
Messages are routed in a TCP/IP network based on destination IP address.”
An Internet Protocol (IP) Address is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g.
computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol
for communication. An IP address severs two principal functions: host or network
interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been categorized as
follows: “A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A more
indicates how to get there.”
1 The IP address consists of two part network identifier and host identifier.
2 All the computers on a particular subnet will have the same network identifier but
different host identifiers.
3 The Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) assigns network identifiers to
avoid duplication of addresses.
4 An IPV4 address consists of two parts. The first part of the of the address, called the
network number, identifiers a network on the internet; the reminder, called the host ID,
identifies an individual host on that network.
IP Address classes
The IPv4 addresses are classified into 5 classes as follows:
1 Class A
2 Class B
3 Class C
4 Class D
5 Class E
Classless IP addressing
There are three main problems with “classful” addressing, which are somewhat related
to each other (making them a bit harder to explain).
1 Lack of Internal Address Flexibility: Big organizations are assigned large,
“monolithic” blocks of addresses that don't match well the structure of their underlying
internal networks.
2 Inefficient Use of Address Space: The existence of only three block sizes (classes A,
B and C) leads to waste of limited IP address space.
3 Proliferation of Router Table Entries: As the Internet grows, more and more
entries are required for routers to handle the routing of IP datagrams, which causes
performance problems for routers. Attempting to reduce inefficient address space
allocation leads to even more router table entries.
The Internet authorities announced a new architecture called classless addressing. In
classless addressing, variable-length blocks are used that belong to no classes.
In classful addressing the whole address space was divided into five classes. Although
each organization was granted one block in class A, B, or C, the size of the blocks was
predefined; the organization needed to choose one of the three block sizes. The only
block in class D and the only block in class E were reserved for a special purpose. In
classless addressing, the whole address space is divided into variable length blocks.
Theoretically, we can have a block of 20, 21, 22, . . . , 232 addresses. The only
restriction is that the number of addresses in a block needs to be a power of 2. An
organization can be granted one block of addresses. Figure shows the division of the
whole address space into nonoverlapping blocks.
 Figure: Variable-length blocks in classless addressing

Subnetting
subnet mask is a net mask with the only real difference being that breaking a larger
network into smaller parts and each smaller section will use different sets of address
numbers. The subnet mask is 32 bit value that usually express in dotted decimal
notation used by IP address. This is the combination of net-ID and host-ID.
Example:
Consider the subnet mask as [Link]. convert the [Link] subnet mask to
binary.
[Link] =
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 (in binary)
add 1s right after the last 1 on the right (in the middle of the mask, between the 1s and
0s) I add five 1s to make it look like this:
11111111 11111111 11111000 00000000
Using the subnet's formula, this would give us 25 = 32 networks
Supernetting Masking.
To create a supernet work, the procedure is to be reversed. The networks are combined
by creating space for a larger number of hosts. To accomplish this, we start with the
default subnet mask of [Link] and use some of the bits reserved for the Netid
to identify the Hostid. The following example shows we would create a new supernet
work by combining four separate subnetworks.
Example: If a packet arrives at the router with the destination address
[Link], the supernet mask [Link] is applied to the destination address.

1000000.10101000.01000000.00110000 (destination IP address)

AND
11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000 (supernet mask)
Returns
11000000.10101000.01000000.00000000

Network Address Translation (NAT)

A technology that can provide the mapping between the private and universal
addresses, and at the same time support virtual private networks, is Network Address
Translation (NAT).
Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP
address is translated into one or more Global IP address and vice versa in order to
provide Internet access to the local hosts. Also, it does the translation of port numbers
i.e. masks the port number of the host with another port number, in the packet that will
be routed to destination.
It then makes the corresponding entries of ip address and port number in the NAT
table. NAT generally operates on router or firewall.
DHCP Operation
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a client-server protocol that uses
DHCP servers and DHCP clients. A DHCP server is a machine that runs a service that
can lease out IP addresses and other TCP/IP information to any client that requests
them. The DHCP server typically has a pool of IP addresses that it is allowed to
distribute to clients, and these clients lease an IP address from the pool for a specific
period of time, usually several days. Once the lease is ready to expire, the client
contacts the server to arrange for renewal. DHCP clients are client machines that run
special DHCP client software enabling them to communicate
with DHCP server
DHCP clients obtain a DHCP lease for an IP address, a subnet mask, and various
DHCP options from DHCP servers in a four-step process:
DHCP DISCOVER: The client broadcasts a request for a DHCP server.
DHCPOFFER: DHCP servers on the network offer an address to the client.
DHCPREQUEST: The client broadcasts a request to lease an address from one of the
offering DHCP servers.
DHCPACK: The DHCP server that the client responds to acknowledges the client,
assigns it any configured DHCP options, and updates its DHCP database. The client
then initializes and binds its TCP/IP protocol stack and can begin network
communication
5.4 IPv4 and IPv6
IPV6 IPV4
Source and destination addresses are
Source and destination addresses are
128 bits (16 bytes) in length. For more
32 bits (4 bytes) in length.
information.
There are no IPv6 broadcast addresses.
Uses broadcast addresses to send
Instead, multicast scoped addresses are
traffic to all nodes on a subnet.
used.
Fragmentation is not supported at Fragmentation is supported at
routers. It is only supported at the originating hosts and intermediate
originating host. routers.
IP header does not include a
IP header includes a checksum.
checksum.
All optional data is moved to IPv6
IP header includes options.
extension headers.
IPSec support is required in a full IPv6
IPSec support is optional.
implementation.
Payload identification for QOS
No identification of payload for QOS
handling by routers is included in the
handling by routers is present within
IPv6 header using the Flow Label
the IPv4 header.
field.
Addresses can be automatically
assigned using stateless address auto Addresses must be configured either
configuration, assigned using manually or through DHCP.
DHCPv6, or manually configured.
 Uses host address (AAAA) resource
Uses host address (A) resource records
records in the Domain Name System
in the Domain Name System (DNS) to
(DNS) to map host names to IPv6
map host names to IPv4 addresses.
addresses.

5.5 OSI and TCP/IP Network Model

OSI reference model TCP/IP network model
1)It has 7 layers 1)It has 4 layers
2)Transport layer guarantees delivery of 2)Transport layer does not guarantees
Packets delivery of packets
3)Horizontal approach 3)Vertical approach
4)No session layer, characteristics are
4)Separate presentation layer
provided by transport layer
5)No presentation layer, characteristics
5)Separate session layer
are provided by application layer
6)Network layer provides both
6)Network layer provides only
connectionless and connection oriented
connection less services
services
7)It defines the services, interfaces and
7)It does not clearly distinguishes
protocols very clearly and makes a clear
between service interface and protocols
distinction between them
8)The protocol are better hidden and can
be easily replaced as the technology 8)It is not easy to replace the protocols
changes
9)TCP/IP cannot be used for any other
9)OSI truly is a general model
application
10)It has a problem of protocol filtering 10)The model does not fit any protocol
into a model stack.

PRIVATE IP ADDRESS PUBLIC IP ADDRESS

Scope is local. Scope is global.

It is used to communicate within the network. It is used to communicate outside the network.

Private IP addresses of the systems connected in a Public IP may differ in uniform or non-uniform
network differ in a uniform manner. manner.

It works only in LAN. It is used to get internet service.

It is used to load network operating system. It is controlled by ISP.

It is available in free of cost. It is not free of cost.

Private IP can be known by entering “ipconfig” on Public IP can be known by searching “what is my ip”
command prompt. on google.
PRIVATE IP ADDRESS PUBLIC IP ADDRESS

Range:
[Link] – [Link], Range:
[Link] – [Link], Besides private IP addresses, rest are public.
[Link] – [Link]

Example: [Link] Example: [Link]