Unit -III

Errors Detection, Correction And Wireless Communication

1.1 Types of Error: Single Bit Error and Burst Error, Redundancy
Error
Due to outside influences like sound waves or electrical signals can disrupt the flow of
data in a computer system is called error.
OR
In Communication Systems, any distortion of transmitted signal before reaching its
destination is called error.
Single Bit Error
If the signal is carrying binary data, and if a value of 0 to changes to 1 or vice versa then it
is known as single bit error.
Single bit errors are more likely in the case of parallel transmission because it is likely that
one of the eight wires carrying the bits has become noisy, resulting in corruption of a
single bit of each byte.
This can be a case of parallel transmission between the CPU and the memory inside a
computer.
Burst Error
In burst error multiple bits of binary value are changed. In contrast, a burst change at least
two bits during data transmission because of errors. Note that burst errors can change any
two or more bits in a transmission. These bits need not necessarily be adjacent bits. Burst
errors are more likely in serial transmission, because the duration of noise is longer, which
causes multiple bits to be corrupted.
Redundancy
The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy. To be able to detect or
correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data. These redundant bits are
added by the sender and removed by the receiver. Their presence allows the receiver to
detect or correct corrupted bits.
1.2 Error Detection: Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC), Vertical Redundancy
Check (VRC), Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
In this error detection method, a block of bits is organized in a table with rows and
columns. Then the parity bit for each column is calculated and a new row of eight bits,
which are the parity bits for the whole block, is created. After that the new calculated
parity bits are attached to the original data and sends to the receiver.
LRC increases the likelihood of detecting burst error. An LRC of n bits can easily detect a
burst error of n bits. But, if two bits in one data unit are damaged and two bits in exactly
the same positions in another data unit are also damaged, the LRC checker will not detect
an error.

Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)

 Vertical redundancy check (VRC), a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the
total number of 1’s become even.
 VRC is most common & least expensive mechanism.
 A redundant bit is called as parity bit.
 After appending redundant bit to data unit if total number of 1’s in the packet
(including parity bit) becomes even then it is called even parity checking & if total
number of 1’s in the packet (including parity bit) becomes odd then it is called odd
parity checking.
 A parity bit is added to data packet for purpose of error detection.
 Upon receipt of the packet, parity needed for data is recomputed & compared to parity
received with the data. If any bit has changed state, parity will not match & error can
be detected.
 In fact, if an odd number of bits (not just one) have been altered, parity will not match.
If even numbers of bits have been altered, the parity will match even though error has
occurred.
Example: Suppose sender wants to send 1110111 data unit to receiver & both uses even
parity checking.
Solution:
Original Data to send:

Both sender & receiver use Even parity checking. As total number
of 1’s in data unit are even i.e. six the parity bit added to end of data unit will be 0, so it
maintains even parity of data unit.
Actual data send by sender:

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is one of the most common and powerful error detecting code which can be describe
as follows. The polynomial code also known as CRC with co-efficient of 0s and 1s. In this
method the sender and receiver must agree upon generator polynomial g(x) in advance.
Both the high and low order bits of the generator (divisor) must be 1. To compute the
checksum for some frame (data) with m bits, the frame must be longer than generator
polynomial. The idea is to append checksum to the end of frame in such a way that the
polynomial represented by the checksum frame is divisible by g(x). When the receiver
gets the checksum frame it tries dividing it by g(x). If there is remainder there has been a
transmission error and zero remainder mean no error in the transmission. r is degree of
g(x) polynomial.
Step by step procedure:
1. Append a string of r zero bits to the lower order end of data word where r is less than
the number of bits pre-decided divisor by 1bit i.e. if divisor = 5 bits then r = 4 zeros. Now
data word contains m+r bits
2. Divide the newly generated data unit in step 1 by the divisor. It is module – 2 division
3. The remainder obtained after division is the r bit CRC.
4. This CRC will replace the r zeros appended to the data unit to get the codeword to be
transmitted.
Example:
1. Data unit 1001 is divided by 1011.

2. During this process of division, whenever the leftmost bit of dividend or remainder is
0, we use a string of 0s of same length as divisor. Thus, in this case divisor 1011 is
replaced by 0000.
3. At the receiver side, data received is 1001110.

4. This data is again divided by a divisor 1011

5. The remainder obtained is 000; it means there is no error.
1.3 Error Correction: Forward Error Correction.
In telecommunication and information theory, forward error correction (FEC) is a
system of error control for data transmission, whereby the sender adds redundant data
to its messages, also known as an error correction code. This allows the receiver to
detect and correct errors (within some bound) without the need to ask the sender for
additional data. The advantage of forward error correction is that a back-channel is not
required, or that retransmission of data can often be avoided, at the cost of higher
bandwidth requirements on average. FEC is therefore applied in situations where
retransmissions are relatively costly or impossible. In particular, FEC information is
usually added to most mass storage devices to protect against damage to the stored
data. The popular Example of FEC is Hamming Code.
In FEC, the receiver corrects the error without requiring any further information from
the sender. This requires minimum amount of redundancy in the transmission.
When receiver detects some error in the data received, this executes error correcting
code, which helps it to auto recover and correct some kinds of errors.
Not only must an error be detected, but its location must be determined. For one-bit
error correction on n-bit frame, we must be able to identify one out of the n-bit
positions if there is an error or state that there is no error.

Fig. Process of FEC

1.4 IEEE Standards: 802.1, 802.2, 802.3, 802.4, 802.5
IEEE 802.1
The IEEE 802.1 Working Group (IEEE 802.1) is an IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-
SA) group established to ensure network management and monitoring capabilities in
networks developed according to IEEE 802 standards.
IEEE 802.1 handles the architecture, security, management and internetworking of local
area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN)
standardized by IEEE 802.
The following are key IEEE 802.1 tasks:
 Designs and implements standards that regulate network management practices
 Provides services, including LAN/MAN management, media access control (MAC)
bridging, data encryption/encoding and network traffic management
IEEE 802.1 is made up of four groups that focus on different standards and policies in the
following areas:
 Internetworking
 Audio/video (A/V) bridging
 Data center bridging
 Security
The Internetworking group handles overall architecture, link aggregation, protocol
addressing, network path identification/calculation and other technical practices and
recommendations.
IEEE 802.2
The 802.2 standard, referred to as the Logical Link Control (LLC), manages data flow
control and error control for the other IEEE LAN standards. Data flow control regulates
how much data can be transmitted in a certain amount of time. Error control refers to the
recognition and notification of damaged signals.
the Data Link Layer (DLL) into two sublayers, the Logical Link Control (LLC) and
Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayers. The LLC sublayer, known as the IEEE 802.2
standard, is responsible for data link functions that are independent of the underlying
medium.
The LLC multiplexing interface includes the following network protocol features:
 Multipoint network operation
 Unified network media exchange
 Flow control
 Line protocol identification, like Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)
 Frame sequence number assignment
 Acknowledgement tracking
IEEE 802.3
Ethernet is a network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a LAN.
Technically it is referred to as the IEEE 802.3 protocol
IEEE created Gigabit Ethernet under the name 802.3z.
It is compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
It also uses similarly 48-bit hexadecimal addressing scheme.
The frame format is also similar to standard Ethernet.
It operates in both half-duplex and full duplex mode.
In half duplex mode, CSMA/CD access method is used whereas in full duplex mode
CSMA/CD is not required.
IEEE 802.4
The IEEE 802.4 standard covers Token Bus. Token Bus is nothing but an implementation
of Token Ring protocol, over a virtual ring over a coaxial cable. The principle of the
network is quite simple. A token keeps getting circulated over the network. Only the host
that processes the token has a right to transmit. Of course, if a host possessing the token
does not have anything to transmit, it simply forwards the token, i.e. the right to transmit,
to the next host. For this to be possible, each host needs to know the address of its
immediate neighbours. Protocols are designed to handle this, a new addition of hosts, as
well as disconnections. All of this comes under IEEE 802.4 standard.
IEEE 802.5
The IEEE 802.5 standard is nothing but the Token Ring mechanism. The Token Ring
standard is based on the idea of a circulating token. A host that processes the token can
transmit, others cannot. This avoids contentions and collisions in the network. A host that
does not possess the token must wait even if it has data to be sent out. A host that gets the
token either can send a frame and forward the token to the next host. If it has nothing to
send, it simply forwards the token to the next host.

3.5 Wireless LAN: 802.11 Architecture, MAC Sublayer, Addressing Mechanism.

IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture:
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11,
which covers the physical and data link layers.
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and
extended service set (ESS).
Basic Service Set (BSS): BSS is Building Blocks of wireless LAN.
1) The basic services set contain stationary or mobile wireless station and central base
station called access point (AP)
2) The use of access point is optimal.
3) If the access point is not present, it is known as standalone network. Such a BSS cannot
pass data to other BSSs. These types of architecture are known as adhoc architecture.
4) The BSS in which an access point is present is known as infrastructure network.
Types of BSS:
1) BSS without AP
2) BSS with AP

Extended Service Set (ESS): ESS is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In ESS the
BSSs are connected through a distribution system. The distribution
system connects the APs in the BSSs.
1) An extended service set is created by initializing two or more basic services set (BSS)
having access points (APS)
2) These extended networks are created by joining the access points of basic station set
through a wired LAN known as distribution system.
3) The distribution system can be any IEEE LAN.
4) There are two types of station in ESS.
Mobile Station: These are normal station inside a BSS
Stationary Station: these are AP station that are part of a wired LAN
Communication between two stations in two different BSS usually Occurs via two APs. A
mobile Station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time.

MAC Sublayer

The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical link
control sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for encapsulating
frames and describing frame formats.
IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer uses two co-ordination functions for collision avoidance before
transmission − the distributed coordination function (DCF) and point coordination function
(PCF).
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) −
 It is a mandatory function used in CSMA/CA.
 It is used in distributed contention-based channel access.
 It is deployed in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) as well as Independent
BSS.
Point Coordination Function (PCF) −
 It is an optional function used by 802.11 MAC Sublayer.
 It is used in centralized contention-free channel access.
 It is deployed in Infrastructure BSS only.

1. Distributed Coordination Function:

• DCF uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access /Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) as the access
method.
Frame Exchange Time Line
1. Before sending a frame, the source station senses the medium by checking the energy level
at the carrier frequency.
a. The channel uses a persistence strategy with back-off until the channel is idle.
 b. After the station is found to be idle, the station waits for a period of time called the
distributed interframe space (DIFS); then the station sends a control frame called the request
to send (RTS).
2. After receiving the RTS and waiting a period of time called the short interframe space
(SIFS), the destination station sends a control frame, called the clear to send (CTS), to the
source station. This control frame indicates that the destination station is ready to receive data.
3. The source station sends data after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS.
4. The destination station, after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS, sends an
acknowledgment to show that the frame has been received. Acknowledgment is needed in this
protocol because the station does not have any means to check for the successful arrival of its
data at the destination. On the other hand, the lack of collision in CSMA/CD is a kind of
indication to the source that data have arrived.
Following figure shows the Frame Exchange Time line

Network Allocation Vector:

•How do other stations defer sending their data if one station acquires access?
•The key is a feature called NAV.
•When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel.
•The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a network allocation
vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these stations are allowed to check
the channel for idleness.
•Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other stations start their
NAV.
•In other words, each station, before sensing the physical medium to see if it is idle, first
checks its NAV to see if it has expired.

Collision During Handshaking:

•What happens if there is collision during the time when RTS or CTS control frames are in
transition, often called the handshaking period?
• Two or more stations may try to send RTS frames at the same time.
•These control frames may collide.
•However, because there is no mechanism for collision detection, the sender assumes there has
been a collision if it has not received a CTS frame from the receiver.
• The back-off strategy is employed, and the sender tries again.
2. Point Coordination Function (PCF):
• The PCF is an optional access method that can be implemented in an infrastructure network.
• It is implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for time-sensitive transmission.
•PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.
•The AP performs polling for stations that are capable of being polled.
•The stations are polled one after another, sending any data they have to the AP.
•To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of interframe spaces has been defined: PIFS
and SIFS.
•The SIFS is the same as that in DCF, but the PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than the DIFS.
• Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF may not gain access to the
medium.
• To prevent this, a repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-free (PCF)
and contention-based (DCF) traffic.
• The repetition interval, which is repeated continuously, starts with a special control frame,
called a beacon frame.
• When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the duration of the
contention-free period of the repetition interval.

Addressing Mechanism
 The IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases, defined by the value of the
two flags in the FC field, To DS and From DS.
 Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations.
 The interpretation of the four addresses (address 1 to address 4) in the MAC frame
depends on the value of these flags

Note: Address 1 is always address of next device

Address 2 is always address of previous device
Address 3 is address of final destination if not defined by Address 1
Address 4 is address of original source if not defined by Address 2
 Case 1: 00 In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 0. This means that the frame is not going to
a distribution system (To DS = 0) and is not coming from a distribution system (From DS = 0).
The frame is going from one station in a BSS to another without passing through the
distribution system. The addresses are shown in Figure.

Case 2: 01 In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 1. This means that the frame is coming
from a distribution system (From DS = 1). The frame is coming from an AP and going to a
station. The addresses are as shown in Figure. Note that address 3 contains the original sender
of the frame (in another BSS).

Case 3: 10 In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 0. This means that the frame is going to a
distribution system (To DS = 1). The frame is going from a station to an AP. The ACK is sent
to the original station. The addresses are as shown in Figure. Note that address 3 contains the
final destination of the frame in the distribution system.

Case 4: 11 In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 1. This is the case in which the distribution
system is also wireless. The frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless
distribution system. Here, we need four addresses to define the original sender, the final
destination, and two intermediate APs. Figure shows the situation.

1.5 Bluetooth Architecture: Piconet, Scatternet.

• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology used to connect devices of different
functions such as telephones, computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras,
printers and so on.
• Bluetooth project was started by SIG (Special Interest Group) formed by four
companies - IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba for interconnecting computing and
communicating devices using short-range, lower-power, inexpensive wireless radios.
• Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the
IEEE 802.15 standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN)
operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.
[Link]
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net.
• Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven
active secondary (slave) nodes.
• Thus, piconet can have up to eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations
within the distance of 10 meters.
• There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.
• The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or
one-to-many.
• All communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not
possible.
• In addition to seven active slave stations, a piconet can have up to 255 parked nodes.
These parked nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in
communication until it is moved from parked state to active state. Figure shows a
piconet.

M=Master P=Parked
S=Slave SB=Standby

II. Scatternet
• Scatternet is formed by combining various piconets.
• A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
• Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and
deliver the message to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node
is also called bridge slave.
• Thus, a station can be a member of two piconets.
• A station cannot be a master in two piconets. Figure illustrates a Scatternet.

M=Master P=Parked
S=Slave SB=Standby

3.7 Mobile Generations: 1G,2G,3G,4G and 5G

0G-Mobile radio telephone (also known as “0G”). Mobile radio telephone systems
preceded modern cellular mobile telephony technology. Since they were the
predecessors of the first generation of cellular telephones, these systems are sometimes
retroactively referred to as pre-cellular (or sometimes zero generation) systems.
1G refers to the first-generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile
telecommunications. 1G is an analog technology and the phones generally had poor
battery life and voice quality was large without much security, and would sometimes
experience dropped calls. These are the analog telecommunications standards that
were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital
telecommunications. The maximum speed of 1G is 2.4 Kbps.
2G is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation
2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in
Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991. 2G technologies enabled the
various mobile phone networks to provide the services such as text messages, picture
messages and MMS (multimedia messages). All text messages sent over 2G are
digitally encrypted, allowing for the transfer of data in such a way that only the
intended receiver can receive and read it.
3G stands for third-generation and refers to technology that allows mobile phones to
access the internet – from surfing web pages to making video calls and downloading
music. 3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information
transfer rate of at least 200 kbit/s. 3G finds application in wireless voice telephony,
mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service on the
2G and 3G cellular communication system’s global system for mobile
communications (GSM). GPRS provides data rates of 56-114 kbit/second. 2G cellular
technology combined with GPRS is sometimes described as 2.5G, that is, a technology
between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony.
4G is the fourth generation of mobile phone mobile communication technology
standards. It is a successor to the third generation (3G) standards. A 4G system
provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access. Conceivable applications include
amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile
TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless systems)
5G is a generation currently under development, that's intended to improve on
4G. 5G promises significantly faster data rates, higher connection density, much lower
latency, among other improvements. Some of the plans for 5G include device-to-
device communication, better battery consumption, and improved overall wireless
coverage. The max speed of 5G is aimed at being as fast as 35.46 Gbps, which is over
35 times faster than 4G.
Key technologies to look out for: Massive MIMO, Millimetre Wave Mobile
Communications etc. Massive MIMO, millimetre wave, small cells, Li-Fi all the new
technologies from the previous decade could be used to give 10Gb/s to a user, with an
unseen low latency, and allow connections for at least 100 billion devices. Different
estimations have been made for the date of commercial introduction of 5G networks.
Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feel that 5G should be rolled out
by 2020 to meet business and consumer demands.