Language, Culture and Society
CHAPTER 1
The Nature of
Language and
Language Study
02
Introduction
We live in a world where communication is vital. We can share our opinion on things,
knowledge and beliefs as well as our wishes, and even threats when we are angry. We can
make promises and give commands. We share appreciation. We can make declarations and
state our feelings. It is only our imagination that sets the limits.
As humans, we are amused by a lot of reasons. We feel happy and we smile to show this
happiness. We express entertainment if there is pleasure or approval of some sort. We also
can feel bitter and we scream when we feel angry or scared. When we disapprove, we can
raise our eyebrows and so on, even if our original means of communication is the spoken
form using language.
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LESSON 1:
A Quick Look at Language,
Macro Skills and
Communicative Competence
04
Acquisition
In understanding others' thoughts and emotions, we need to communicate. In so doing, we
can express our feelings and ideas and we can be better understood. This will result in the
creation of positive and negative affections and relationships. Our world will have difficulty
functioning if there is no communication. One important element in this process is language.
What is language?
➤ Language is primarily a human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions, and desires through a system of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir).
➤ Language goes beyond just describing real situations, for it primarily aims to form the
components of culture (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis).
➤ Language, in its widest sense, means the total of such signs of our thoughts and feelings
as are capable of external perception and as could be produced and repeated at will (A.H.
Gardiner).
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Acquisition
➤ Language may be defined as the expression of thought utilizing speech-sounds (Henry
Sweet).
➤ A system of communication by sound ise, through the organs of speech and hearing,
among human beings of a certain group or community, using vocal symbols possessing
arbitrary conventional meanings (Mario A Pei & Frank Gaynor).
The word 'Language' comes from the Latin term, lingua. It means tongue and the French
term langue. Language is associated with human vocal and auditory means of expressing
ideas and feelings. It is an entire multifaceted phenomenon.
Foundations of
Language
(The Origins of Language)
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The Divine Source
Basic Hypothesis:
If human infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language around them,
then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language.
Criticism:
Divine source is impossible to prove/disprove and the ‘first language’ is impossible to
reconstruct.
(-) If human language did emanatefroma divine source,we have noway of reconstructing
that original language, especiallygiven the events in a place called Babel, “because the Lord
did there confound thelanguage of all the earth,” as described in the book of Genesis in the
Bible (11:9).
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The Divine Source
Biblical Tradition (book of Genesis)
God created Adam and “whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the
name thereof.”
Hindu Tradition
Language came from Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, creator of the universe.
Egyptian pharaoh named Psammetichus (or Psamtik)
tried to experiment with two newborn babies, left in the company of goats for two
years.
concluded that Phrygian, an older language spoken in part of what is modern Turkey,
must be the original language. (Phrygian word bekos, meaning “bread”)
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The Divine Source
King James the Fourth of Scotland
carried out a similar experiment.
reported that the children have spontaneously started speaking Hebrew.
(-) Children discovered living in isolation do not confirm these findings but grow up with no
language at all.
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The Natural Sound Source
Primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early humans heard
around them.
“bow-wow theory” of language origin
Words that sound similar to the noises they describe are examples of onomatopoeia.
(-) It ishard to see how most of the soundless things as well as abstract concepts in our
worldcould have been referred to in a language that simply echoed natural sounds.
natural cries of emotion
The original sounds of language may have come from natural cries of emotion such as
pain, anger and joy.
(-) Interjections are usually producedwith sudden intakes of breath, which is theopposite of
ordinary talk. Spoken language is normally produced on exhaled breath.
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The Social Interaction Source
“yo-he-ho” theory
The idea is that the sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source
of our language, especially when that physical effort involved several people and the
interaction had to be coordinated.
It places the development of human language in a social context.
(-) Apes and other primates live in social groups and use grunts and social calls, but theydo
not seem to have developed the capacity for speech.
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The Physical Adaptation Source
One function (producing speech sounds) must have been superimposed on existing
anatomical features (teeth, lips) previously used for otherpurposes (chewing, sucking).
In the study of evolutionary development, there are certainphysical features, best thought
of as partial adaptations, which appear to be relevantfor speech.
(-) Bythemselves, such features would not necessarily lead to speech production, but
theyare good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the capacity
forspeech.
(-) Certain birds (e.g. parrots) are also able to produce a wide variety of sounds.
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The Tool-making Source
Manual gestures may have been a precursor of language. It may be that there was an
evolutionary connection between the language-using and tool-using abilities of humans
and that both were involved in the development of the speaking brain.
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The Genetic Source
Humanoffspring are born with a special capacity for language. It is innate, no other
creatureseems to have it, and it isn’t tied to a specific variety of language. Even
childrenwho are born deaf (and do not develop speech) become fluent sign language users.
Language did not result from a gradual change but happened rather quickly as a crucial
genetic mutation.
innateness hypothesis
Humans are biologically equipped with a knowledge of certain universal elements of
language structure that is brought into play in the course of native-language acquisition.
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The Genetic Source
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Macro Skills
As future language teachers, we need to facilitate the development of 5-macro skills.
These are listening, speaking, reading, writing and viewing. These are essential for
communication. Humans develop the skill to communicate by listening, just like babies.
They listen and imitate the sounds they hear. Then comes the speaking through imitation.
As the skills progress, they then learn to read then write. Along with all these also comes
the viewing.
These are all interconnected; thus when one learns a new language, the best effort to do
is by engaging all these skills in a balance. The one that is not used and practiced well will
eventually become the weaker skill of the individual.
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Macro Skills
Listening
It is a prerequisite to understanding. It is the skill of grasping and decoding information
during the exchange of messages. Listening is the beginning of understanding and a
valuable key to effective communication. It is the task of getting the meaning of what is
being heard (Underwood, 2009).
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Macro Skills
10 Steps to Effective Listening
Step1: Look at the speaker in the face and eyes.
Step 2: Focus and give attention but relax.
Step 3: Be open-minded.
Step 4: Listen and picture what the speaker is saying.
Step 5: Don't speak while the person is talking.
Step 6: When the speaker pauses, you may ask clarifying questions.
Step 7: Ask relevant questions.
Step 8: Put yourself in the speaker's place.
Step 9: Give feedback.
Step 10: Focus as well to nonverbal cues.
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Macro Skills
Speaking
It is the ability that makes us superior to other species. It is a complex cognitive and
linguistic skill that involves words and sounds. It also involves:
Meaning: connotation, denotation, grammar
Sociality, Relationship, Affect: formal, informal, slang, turn-taking
Cultural Issues: class, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender, dialect
Performance: articulation, projection, pronunciation
Sound Elements: how volume pitch, pace, and nature of sound
complement/contradict/replace words
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Macro Skills
Functions of Speaking
Interaction is seen in social conversations. For example, a student shares her weekend
getaway experience to a friend, a taxi driver chats with his passenger, or a saleslady telling
her manager about her recent experience, etc.
Transaction happens when someone wants to cut across a message. There is an act to
be done after the message is received. For example, a boy orders a box of pizza, a teacher
gives instructions on the assignment of the lesson to her students, or book a plane ticket
via phone call.
Performance is when an audience accepts the message spoken. For example, speeches
conducted to persuade like oration or debate. There is an emphasis on the accuracy, the
sequencing of ideas, the form and the organization.
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Macro Skills
Reading
is a multifaceted process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and
motivation. Learn how readers integrate these facets to make meaning from print
(Leipzig, 2001).
Reading is making meaning from print. It requires that we:
identify the words in print a process called word recognition;
construct an understanding from them a process called comprehension and
coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that reading is automatic and
accurate an achievement called fluency.
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Macro Skills
Brown (1989) suggested the category as outlined below.
A. Oral Reading
B. Silent Reading
I. Intensive
a. linguistic
b. context
II. Extensive
a. skimming
b. scanning
c. global
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Macro Skills
Oral Reading is reading aloud. This can be a technique to improve poor readers' word
identification in context. By reading aloud, the person learns to correct and detect errors
that the reader produced. It improves proper pronunciation and enunciation.
Under silent reading are extensive and intensive reading. The latter is the end in itself.
Practicing specific reading strategies entail intensive reading while extensive reading is the
means to an end. Extensive reading includes reading for pleasure or reading technical,
scientific, or professional material. Under these are two specific types of reading: scanning
for key details or skimming for the essential meaning;
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Macro Skills
Writing
It is another macro skill which language teachers should master and teach students.
Writing entails control of language variables since it is an extremely complex cognitive
activity. Good writing skills may increase the chances of a person's success. These are
needed for all students to accomplish their educational and employable requirements.
Just like how natural a chef is when cooking. He/she has developed the skills necessary
when cooking: the ingredients, the techniques, and the steps. Likewise, in writing, we
also need to know the strategies for good output. Just like in our childhood, we are first
introduced to the alphabets and sounds, then putting them together we form words.
Slowly, the words when put together form sentences and thus, completing a piece of
thought.
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Macro Skills
Writing
Good sentences are prerequisite to excellent work. To make our writing appealing, we
need to add more flavors and make use of engaging words instead of bland phrases. In
writing, we need to follow the steps to achieve a coherent and effective output.
The steps for writing begins with deciding on the topic, followed by researching and
collecting information, then, making the outline to serve as the flow plan. When the plan
is set, you may start writing; this will serve as the first draft. Then revise to improve your
work.
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Macro Skills
Steps for Writing
Decide the topic
Research and Collect Information
Start wirting by a Simple Draft
Outline and Plan
Review, Edit and Format
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Macro Skills
Viewing skills allow students to pause and reflect and think about the images they are
seeing and analyze or evaluate further these visuals for better use. It includes giving
meaning to the images or visuals and even with computer programs and websites which
have printed and spoken words.
Viewing gives an avenue for students to understand things and gain knowledge through
information, which is communicated by others especially with the use of technology. This
skill is very important especially in this age of technology. In this age and time, visual
literacy will be an important skill and requirement for success in business as this generation
experiences an information revolution. It is the ability to learn visually by thinking and
solving problems presented in the visual domain. King and VanHecke (2006) assert that
learning happens when connections are created like schema in the mind. Biologically we
connect through the neural network; concepts and ideas are linked in the mind and
interactions made between experiences are all essential in the process of learning.
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Macro Skills
Ideas may be presented visually through:
-pictures -videos -drawings
-graphics -web pages
-posters -multimedia
Types of Viewing
Visual Literacy
skill to decipher the meaning from visuals (Georgis, 1999)
ability to create visuals to convey effectively the ideas in mind (Valmont, 2003; Heinish,
1999)
Critical Viewing
skill to understand and evaluate information from visuals
ability to analyze the composition of the picture
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Communicative Competence
Cooley and Roach (1984) mentioned that Communicative competence refers to the
knowledge one has on morphology, phonology, syntax including how and when to use
these appropriately in utterances. It is the proper and efficient communication flow and the
skill to utilize and acclimate this expertise in different situations.
Dell Hymes coined this term after opposing the description of Chomsky's (1966)
performance and competence.
Canale and Swain (1980) looked at communicative competence as the overall system,
which includes the skill and knowledge one needs for communication. They proposed a 4-
dimensional theory comprising of grammatical, sociolinguistic, strategic and discourse
competences.
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Communicative Competence
In developing communicative competence, remember the three principles:
➤ CP or communication principle: As teachers, we provide activities for students that push
them to use language in a communicative context.
➤TP or task principle: Teachers provide real-life activities to complete or do. In so doing,
they learn and gain communicative competence.
➤ MP or meaningful principle: Teachers must carefully choose authentic and engaging
activities that create meaning for students for learning to take place and endure.
In communication, one can do it orally, meaning using voice articulation or written, using
print. In oral communication, we consider the tone of voice, gestures, eye contact while in
written communication, we consider the diction/ use of words or language and manner of
writing.
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LESSON 2:
First Language vs.
Second Language
First Language vs. Second Language 32
Humans acquire language and it is one of the most
amazing tasks as humans develop. Language is essential in
our day-to-day living. It aids us in expressing our thoughts
and emotions to others.
What is a first language?
Whatever the language used and learned by a person
from birth until the critical period is considered his/her first
language. It is the language used in the house. Therefore it is
suffice to say that children learn their first language from the
people they were with from birth until the critical period.
First Language vs. Second Language 33
Some children are left for care in the hands of the
grandparents or caretaker. By listening to their language, the
child effortlessly and naturally learns with 100% proficiency
within 6 years from birth.
There is no alternative to the first language. A person
cannot decide his/her LI. It comes to him/her as an
inheritance, legacy, or birthright. L1 begins with telegraphic
speech, for example, Mommy milk, Daddy walk, No ball. L1
does not require any conscious effort because the
acquisition process is subconscious.
First Language vs. Second Language 34
What is a second language?
After learning the first language (L1), a person
accommodates another language usually learned
afterwards. This is referred to as the second language (L2).
In learning L2, it takes effort and a conscious will by
familiarizing with form, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions,
and rules of the language. Learning L2 is a personal choice.
A person or community can choose a second language
among other languages and it is learned consciously from
guidance and instruction and requires constant effort. A
second language is a new aspect of a person's life.
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LESSON 3:
Micro and Macro Linguistic
Studies
Acquisition 36
All the sentences in the Activation part of this lesson are correct. Some may seem odd and
weird yet grammatically they are valid. When do we say, grammatically valid and logical
invalid?
Let us look closely at some linguistic studies.
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Acquisition 37
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics which focuses on the sounds. In particular, it looks into
how the sounds should be articulated, transmitted and received.
Phonology is the study of the functions of speech sounds in a language. Its focus is on the
ways speech sounds are organized.
Morphology is the study of the construction and formation of words. It is a branch of
linguistics, which breaks words into morphemes and is considered the grammar of words.
Syntax is the study of relationship between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in
sequences and which sequences are well-formed.
Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the
world. It focuses on the meaning of a sentence.
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those
forms.
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Acquisition 38
Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes,
which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.
Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society: how social factors
influence the structure and use of language.
Neurolinguistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the
brain. It typically studies the disturbances of language comprehension and production
caused by the damage of certain areas of the brain.
Discourse Analysis is the study of how stretches of the language used in communication
assume meaning, purpose, and unity for their users.
Computational linguistics is the application of linguistic theories and computational
techniques to problems of natural language processing.
Applied linguistics is the field of study that looks at how linguistics can help understand
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real-life problems in areas such as psychology, sociology and education.
Acquisition 39
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