GRADE 12 LIFE SCIENCES
PAPER 2 — EVOLUTION
Speciation • Genetic Variation • Inbreeding & Outbreeding • Founder Effect
IEB Study Notes
📘 WHAT'S IN THIS BOOKLET
This booklet covers: Artificial vs Natural Selection, Causes of Variation (Mutation & Recombination), the Biological
Species Concept, Speciation & Reproductive Isolation, the Founder Effect, and Inbreeding vs Outbreeding — with
worked examples (Galapagos finches, white lions, cheetahs, the Afrikaner founder population).
1. Artificial Selection vs Natural Selection
● Artificial selection mimics natural selection — humans copy nature's process to produce organisms with
desirable traits.
● All the principles of natural selection apply to artificial selection, EXCEPT for the selecting agent.
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Selecting agent = the ENVIRONMENT Selecting agent = HUMANS
Traits selected are chosen because they are
Traits selected help survival in the wild
useful/desirable to people
Deliberately controlled by humans (breeding
Happens naturally, no human input
programmes)
Results in evolution over time Also results in evolution over time
● Both types of selection will result in evolution — because both change allele frequencies in a population over
generations.
● Artificial selection includes two key processes: INBREEDING and OUTBREEDING (covered fully in Sections 7 &
8).
2. Causes of Variation in Organisms
🔑 KEY IDEA
Variation refers to the differences between organisms of the SAME species.
Variation is the driver of natural selection — without variation, natural selection (and therefore evolution) cannot
happen.
Figure 1: The two causes of variation in populations
2.1 Mutations
A mutation is a random, permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Mutations are the ONLY source
of NEW alleles/genetic material.
Causes of mutations:
● Random errors/mistakes during DNA replication
● Mutagens (chemicals)
● UV radiation
● High-energy rays, e.g. X-rays
Mutations can be:
● Neutral — no effect on the organism
● Harmful — reduces the organism's chance of survival
● Beneficial — increases the organism's chance of survival — variation can be 'realised' (acted on by natural
selection)
💡 DID YOU KNOW
Chromosome mutations change the chromosome NUMBER, e.g. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) — an extra copy of
chromosome 21.
Polyploidy: an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes (e.g. 4n = tetraploid). Rare in animals
but common in plants, e.g. bread wheat and the potato plant. Polyploidy can play a role in the formation of new
species.
2.2 Genetic Recombination (during meiosis)
● Crossing over — exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes in Prophase I of meiosis.
● Random assortment — the random arrangement of homologous chromosome pairs at the equator in
Metaphase I.
Mutations lead to GENOTYPIC variations in populations, which may or may not appear in the PHENOTYPE (e.g.
white lions — see Section 5.2).
3. The Concept of a Biological Species
📖 DEFINITION
A biological species is a group of organisms of common ancestry that can freely interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.
Three things that define a biological species:
● a) Common ancestry (closely related)
● b) Interbreed freely
● c) Production of fertile / viable offspring
⚠️EXCEPTION
There are exceptions — some plants of DIFFERENT species can interbreed and still form fertile hybrids.
● As long as members of a population can crossbreed successfully, they are considered part of the same
species.
● Members of a species share a gene pool, with free gene flow between populations of the same species.
TERM MEANING
A group of organisms of the same species that live in a
Population particular place, at a particular time, with the ability to
freely interbreed.
The total number of alleles of all reproductive
Gene pool
individuals in a particular population.
Gene flow The exchange of alleles between populations.
4. Formation of a New Species (Speciation)
📖 DEFINITIONS
Speciation: the formation of new species — INCREASES the range of organisms on Earth, and so INCREASES
biodiversity.
Extinction: the loss of species — DECREASES the range of organisms on Earth, and so DECREASES biodiversity.
● When a new species arises from an existing (ancestral) species, the two can no longer interbreed.
● There is no gene flow between them — they become reproductively isolated from each other.
🔑 KEY TERM
Reproductive isolation is the type of isolation that develops between a new species and its ancestral species, which
prevents interbreeding.
Figure 2: The general pathway from one population to a new species
4.1 Geographic Isolation & Adaptive Radiation
● A physical barrier (e.g. ocean, mountain range) separates one population into two or more groups.
● With no gene flow between the separated groups, each is exposed to different environments and selection
pressures.
● Different mutations arise and different traits are favoured by natural selection in each group.
● Over time, genetic divergence becomes so great that the groups can no longer interbreed — reproductive
isolation — and a NEW SPECIES has formed.
● When one ancestral species rapidly diversifies into many new species, each adapted to a different niche, this
is called ADAPTIVE RADIATION.
5. Case Studies: Variation in Populations
5.1 Galapagos Finches (Adaptive Radiation)
During Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle, he observed 13 different finch species on the Galapagos Islands —
each with different beaks and food sources, all different from the single seed-eating mainland species found 1 000
km away in South America.
How it happened:
● Ancestor finches were carried from the South American mainland to the islands, possibly on floating tree
trunks or strong winds/currents.
● On arrival, there was very little competition — few other birds occupied the islands, so many empty niches
and new feeding opportunities were available.
● As the finches multiplied, random mutations occurred; individuals with beneficial mutations were retained by
natural selection.
● These finches reproduced more successfully, so favourable traits became more frequent — e.g. thicker,
stronger beaks for cracking large, hard seeds.
● Mutations led to more variation in the population; different traits were favoured on different islands
(different food sources).
● Genetic variation → variation in phenotype (beak size/shape) → each island population became a distinct
species that could not interbreed with the others or with the mainland species.
Figure 3: Different beak shapes evolved for different food sources (adaptive radiation)
🔑 EXAM TIP
The absence of competing birds allowed the finches to diversify and adapt to a wide range of empty niches —
leading to variation. This supports Darwin's theory that species change as their environment changes.
5.2 White Lions — Genotype vs Phenotype
● In lions, brown fur colour (B) is DOMINANT over white fur colour (b).
● The gene for white fur is a mutant, recessive gene that suppresses (masks) colour.
● When two heterozygous brown lions (Bb × Bb) breed, there is a 25% chance of producing a white cub (bb) —
homozygous recessive, carrying only white-fur alleles.
Figure 4: Punnett square — Bb × Bb cross in lions
⚠️IMPORTANT
This is a classic example of a GENOTYPIC variation that may or may not appear in the phenotype: Bb lions are
brown (genotype hidden) while bb lions are visibly white.
White fur is NOT an advantageous phenotypic variation in the wild — white lions have difficulty in adapting to
(camouflaging in) their environment, as they are easily spotted by both prey and hunters/rivals.
Natural selection will therefore tend to decrease the numbers of white lions, as they are unlikely to survive to
breed.
6. The Founder Effect
📖 DEFINITION
The Founder Effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is formed from a small
number of individuals moving to (and becoming isolated in) a new area.
● The gene pool of the new population contains only the alleles carried by the founder members.
● According to evolutionary theory, the isolated population may become so different from the parent
population that it could eventually form a new species.
● Immigrant groups that move to a new area and remain isolated (due to religion, culture, or language barriers)
will show the founder effect.
● Note: selective breeding AND habitat destruction are the two main causes of a decrease in genetic diversity.
Figure 5: The founder effect — a small subset of alleles founds a new, less diverse population
6.1 Case Study: The Afrikaner Population of South Africa
● Descended from about 40 Dutch settler families who moved to South Africa in 1652.
● These founders were carriers of various genetic diseases, e.g. Huntington's chorea.
● The settlers multiplied and intermarried mainly within their own group, due to isolation from other
language/cultural groups.
● The population also experienced a genetic bottleneck, which further reduced the size of the gene pool (only a
small sample of the original Dutch gene pool was represented).
● Result: the modern Afrikaner population has a higher-than-average frequency of the gene for Huntington's
chorea and other rare genetic conditions.
6.2 Case Study: Cheetahs in South Africa
● Cheetahs illustrate the founder effect — scientists believe a catastrophic event in the past killed most of the
population, dramatically reducing their gene pool.
● Inbreeding among the survivors has further reduced genetic variation, threatening the survival of the species.
● Found today mainly in isolated national parks — the population is genetically isolated (cannot interbreed with
cheetahs from other parks).
● This has led to genetic defects arising from inbreeding, such as a kink in the tail and misaligned jaws.
● Problems this causes: interferes with agility and affects hunting ability.
7. Artificial Selection: Inbreeding
📖 DEFINITION
Inbreeding is the mating of genetically closely related individuals within a population.
● Increases homozygosity, i.e. true-breeding / pure-breeding lines.
● Increases the danger of a harmful recessive allele expressing itself — because there is a greater risk of a
double recessive (homozygous recessive) individual arising.
● Leads to a LOSS of genetic diversity (variation).
🔑 EXAM TIP — LINK YOUR ANSWER
Inbreeding can stop evolution from occurring. Why? Evolution thrives on natural selection; natural selection thrives
on genetic variation. Less variation = less material for natural selection to act on.
✅ ADVANTAGES ❌ DISADVANTAGES
Offspring are often susceptible to disease or a genetic
Offspring are predictable
abnormality
Same/consistent quality of crops or livestock Offspring can be sterile
Same appearance of animals Less variation and reduced ability to adapt
Recessive genes leading to unwanted characteristics can
Loss of vigour in offspring
be isolated (and bred out)
7.1 Case Study: Captive Cheetah Population (RSA)
● Found in isolated national parks.
● The population is genetically isolated — it cannot reproduce with cheetahs from other national parks.
● A genetic defect has arisen due to inbreeding: a kink in the tail.
● Problems this causes: interferes with agility, and affects hunting ability; misaligned jaws also occur.
8. Artificial Selection: Outbreeding
📖 DEFINITION
Outbreeding (aka outcrossing) is the mating/crossing of NON-related individuals in a population (or crossing
different strains/populations/species).
● Genetic variation is enhanced/increased due to cross-breeding.
● Tougher individuals, with a better chance of survival, are produced — this is called HYBRID VIGOUR.
● There is an increase in the size of the gene pool.
● It encourages heterozygosity.
● Evolution is more likely, because natural selection thrives on genetic variation.
✅ ADVANTAGES ❌ DISADVANTAGES
Increases variation and strengthens the gene pool
Less predictable outcomes
(introduces desirable characteristics into a population)
Introduces new characteristics into the population Certain (desirable) characteristics can be lost
Increases the chance of survival of a population, due to
increased variation
9. Summary: Inbreeding vs Outbreeding
Figure 6: Quick visual comparison
INBREEDING OUTBREEDING
Related individuals mate Unrelated individuals mate
↑ Homozygosity ↑ Heterozygosity
↓ Genetic variation ↑ Genetic variation
Offspring predictable, but risk of genetic
Offspring less predictable, but hybrid vigour is possible
defects/sterility
Promotes evolution (more variation for natural
Can stop evolution (less variation for natural selection)
selection)
10. Key Terms Glossary
TERM MEANING
A group of organisms of common ancestry that freely
Species
interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Speciation The evolutionary process by which new species form.
Organisms of the same species living in the same place
Population
at the same time, able to interbreed freely.
The total number of alleles of all reproductive
Gene pool
individuals in a population.
Gene flow The exchange of alleles between populations.
Reproductive isolation Isolation between a new species and its ancestral
TERM MEANING
species that prevents interbreeding.
Loss of genetic variation when a new population forms
Founder effect
from a small number of founding individuals.
Mating of closely related individuals; increases
Inbreeding
homozygosity, decreases variation.
Mating of unrelated individuals; increases
Outbreeding
heterozygosity and variation; may cause hybrid vigour.
Rapid diversification of one ancestral species into many
Adaptive radiation
new species, each suited to a different niche.
The genetic make-up of an organism (allele
Genotype
combination).
The observable physical/biochemical characteristics of
Phenotype
an organism, resulting from genotype + environment.
✏️FINAL EXAM TIP
Always link cause → effect in your answers: e.g. 'Inbreeding increases homozygosity, which increases the chance of
harmful recessive alleles pairing up, which can lead to genetic defects.' Examiners reward the FULL chain of
reasoning, not just a single fact.