Maharashtra state Board of Technical

Education, Mumbai
Autonomous (ISO 21001:2018) (ISO/IEC 27001:2013)

Diploma in Engineering and Technology

(Learning Material)

Switchgear & Protection

(315334)
K-Scheme

English medium
(Fifth Semester Diploma in Engineering and Technology)
 (Learning Material)

Switchgear & Protection

(315334)

K-Scheme

English medium
(Fifth Semester Diploma in Engineering and Technology)

Maharashtra state Board of Technical

Education, Mumbai
Autonomous (ISO 21001:2018) (ISO/IEC 27001:2013)
Switchgear & Protection
(315334)

Mentor

Subject Reviewer

[Link] Shroff

Mrs. Jayashri Rudrakanthwar

[Link] Patil
 Index
[Link]. Unit Name Page
No.

1
Fundamentals of Protection 1

2 Circuit Interrupting Devices 12

3 Protective Relays 29

Protection of Alternators, Motors,

4 Transformers, Busbars and Transmission lines 43
Switchgear & Protection (SGP) Course Code: 315334

Unit -I
Fundamentals of Protection
Course Outcome (COs)
Recognize the different types of faults occurring in power system
Theory Learning Outcomes (TLO's) aligned to CO's
1.1 Describe the functions of the given elements of the protective system
1.2 Explain with sketches the given types of faults and abnormalities in a power system
1.3 Explain with sketches the concept of the Backup protection for the given protection zone
1.4 Calculate the short circuit currents of symmetrical faults for the given generators
1.5 Select suitable current limiting reactors for the given situation with justification.
1.1 Protective system: Necessity, functions and components
 Switchgear
It is a generic term which includes all switching devices associated with mainly Power System
protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of electrical
power system. Assembly of such devices in logical manner forms switchgear.
 Definition of switchgear
It is the combination of all equipment associated with or used for Switching, Controlling and
Protecting the electrical circuits and equipment.
 Neccessity :
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines,
etc. Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power system. The heavy current
associated with short circuits is likely to cause damage to equipment if suitable protective relays
and circuit breakers are not provided for the protection of each section of the power system. If a
fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is needed to isolate the
faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of the system in normal operation.
The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If a short circuit persists on a system for a
longer, it may cause damage to some important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current
may cause a fire. It may spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may
reduce to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators in different
power stations may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuit may cause the total
failure of the system. So various switchgear equipment’s is connected in power system network.
 Switchgear equipment
• In every electrical substation there are generally various indoor and outdoor
switchgear equipment.
• Each equipment has a certain functional requirement.
• The equipment are either indoor or outdoor depending upon their voltage ratings and
local conditions.
• Generally indoor equipment are preferred for voltage up to 33 KV and outdoor
equipment are preferred above 33 KV.
• Outdoor equipment are installed under the open sky and indoor equipment are generally
in the form of metal enclosed assembly called metal clade switchgears.
 Substation Equipment

a) Fuse

b) Circuit Breaker
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c) Isolator

d) Earthing Switch

e) Lightning Arrester

f) Current Transformer (CT)

g) Potential Transformer (PT)

Fig 1.1 switchgear equipment’s

Sr. No. Equipment Symbol Function

1. Prevent home appliances from short
1 Fuse
circuit.
2. Prevent from damage by Overloads.

1. Isolate a circuit from source of

2 Isolator
power.
2. It operates under No-load condition.

1. Protect from damage cause by excess

3 Circuit Breaker
current.
2. Interrupt the current flow after fault
detection.
3. Switching during normal and
abnormal condition.
1. Protect from damaging due to
4 Lightning
lightning.
arrester
2. Diverting high voltage surge to earth.
3. Maintain the continuity during
normal voltage.
1. Discharge the voltage to earth after
5 Earthing
diverting them.
Switch

1. Step down the current for

6 Current
measurement.
Transformer
2. Use for Protection and Control.
1. Step down the Voltage for
7 Potential
measurement.
Transformer
2. Use for Protection and Control.

 Functions of Protective System

a) The function of protective system is to disconnect the faulty part due to Short circuit or to
disconnect the circuit under abnormal conditions which might cause damage to the rest of power
system.
b) For this purpose relays are used. Relay sense the fault current from CT and energised the trip coil
which cause the opening of C. B. of the particular system and faulty section disconnected.
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c) The other function of protective system is to provide indication and location of fault and type of
fault. Thus the fault clearing process more easier.
 Fundamental Requirement of Protective System
a) Selectivity: It is the ability of protective system to select correctly that part of system in trouble and
disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
b) Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible to prevent the
electrical apparatus from damage and for system stability.
c) Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity.
Reliability: It is the ability of the relay system to operate under predetermined conditions.
d) Simplicity: The relay system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
 Economy: The most important factor in the choice of particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. The protective gear should not cost more than 5% of the total cost of equipment
to be protected.

1.2 Normal and Abnormal Conditions Normal conditions

a) It is the state of the system network in which below normal and normal current flows through
circuit and frequency remains constant.
b) The current is not diverted towards other intended path or earth.
c) The system works without disturbance.
d) The three phase voltage must be equal in magnitude and having phase displacement 120 degree.
e) All voltages in lines are equal and symmetrical.
 Abnormal Conditions
a) During fault the fault impedance is low, the fault current is relatively high, and three phase
voltage becomes unbalanced.
b) The fault current being excessive they can damage the equipment and supply installation.
c) During the fault the power is diverted towards the faulty parts and supply to the neighboring zone
is affected, voltage becomes unbalanced.
d) The fault can be minimized by improving the system design, quality of equipment.

1.3 Types of Fault and their causes

Fault:
a) Faults is defined as the defects in electric circuit due to which current is diverted from intended
path.
b) Faults are generally caused by breaking of conductors or failure of insulator.
c) The other causes of faults are mechanical failure, accidents, excessive mechanical internal and
external stress.
d) During fault the fault impedance is low, the fault current is relatively high, and three phase
voltage becomes unbalanced.
e) The fault current being excessive they can damage the faulty equipment and supply installation.
f) During the fault the power is diverted towards the faulty parts and supply to the
neighboring zone is affected, voltage becomes unbalanced.
g) The fault can be minimized by improving the system design, quality of equipment.
 Causes of Faults in Power System
a) Over voltages due to direct lightning strokes.
b) Over voltages due to switching surges.
c) Falling of external conducting objects, tree branches etc. on conducting lines.
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d) Accumulation of dust, dirt etc. on exposed components such as lines, insulators etc.
e) Perching of birds on lines, insulators or other components.
f) Ill-maintained sections of the power systems.
g) Heavy unbalanced loading on three phase lines even for short times.
h) Prolonged unbalanced loading conditions leading to overheating (due to harmonics)..
i) Failure of joints.
j) Open circuited or broken conductors.
k) Mechanical damage to components of the power systems.
l) Unusually severe atmospheric conditions as storm, rains, too high humidity.
m) Defective/improper selection of components used and faulty design of the power
system sections.
n) Failure of insulation of components and equipment parts.
o) Accidents.
p) Over temperature.
q) Excessive internal and external stresses.
 Types of faults
a) Symmetrical fault
• A symmetrical fault gives rise to symmetrical fault currents that are displaced with 120 degree
each other. Symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault. This fault occurs when all the three
phases are simultaneously short circuited.
• Symmetrical faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to ground
(L-L- L-G)
b) Unsymmetrical faults
• The most common faults that occur in the power system network are unsymmetrical faults. This
kind of fault gives rise to unsymmetrical fault currents (having different magnitudes with unequal
phase displacement). These faults are also called as unbalanced faults as it causes unbalanced
currents in the system.
• Unsymmetrical faults include open circuit faults (single and two phase open condition) and short
circuit faults (excluding L-L-L-G and L-L-L).
• Unsymmetrical faults are analyzed using methods of unsymmetrical components in order to
determine the voltage and currents in all parts of the system. The analysis of these faults is more
difficult compared to symmetrical faults.
• This analysis is necessary for determining the size of a circuit breaker for largest short circuit
current. The greater current usually occurs for either L-G or L-L fault.

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 Difference Between Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Fault

 Effects of Faults
a) Heavy short circuits lead to damage to equipment mechanically and electrically.
b) Arcing during faults leads to fire hazards.
c) Heavy drop in the supply voltage to loads leading to their mal-operation.
d) Overheated machines due to unbalanced supply voltages.
e) Loss of revenue to supply agency owing to stoppage of supply.
f) Loss of system stability due to generators losing synchronism.
g) Distress load shedding.

1.4 Protection zone and Backup Protection

Protection Zones
• Protection zone is defined as the part of the
power system which is protected by a certain
protective scheme. It is established around each
power system equipment. When the fault occurs on
any of the protection zones then only the circuit
breakers within that zone will be opened. Thus,
only the faulty element will be isolated without
disturbing the rest of the system.
• The protection zone cover the entire power
system, and no part of the equipment is left
unprotected. It usually consists one or more element of the power system. The protection zone of

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the power system mainly depends upon the rating of the machine, its location, the probability of
faults and abnormal condition of the equipment.
Primary Protection
 Primary protection (Main protection) is the essential protection provided for protecting an
equivalent/machine or a part of the power system.
 The main protection or primary protection is the first line protection which provides quick- acting
and selective clearing of a fault within the boundary of the circuit section or element it protects. The
main protection is provided in each section of an electrical installation.
 Main protection can fail due to failure of one of the components in the protective system such as
a relay, auxiliary relay Current Transformer, PT, trip circuit, circuit-breaker, etc. If the primary
protection fails, there must be an additional protection, otherwise, the fault may remain uncleared,
resulting in a disaster.
Backup Protection
Back-up protection is provided for the following reasons
• If due to some reason, the Main protection fails, the Back-up protection serves the purpose of
protection.
• When main protection is made inoperative for the purpose of maintenance, testing, etc. the
Back-up protection acts like main protection.
• As a measure of the economy, Back-up protection is given against short-circuit protection and
generally not for other abnormal conditions. The extent to which back-up protection is provided
depends upon economic and technical consideration

Fig 1.3 Primary protection and Backup protection

1.5 Short circuit fault calculations for symmetrical fault on bus bars fed through generators
Stepwise procedure for symmetrical fault calculations
1) Draw a single line diagram of the complete network indicating the rating, voltage and percentage
reactance of each element of the network.
2) Choose a numerically convenient value of base kVA and convert all percentage reactances to the
base value.
3) Corresponding to the single line diagram of the network, draw the reactance diagram showing
one phase of the system and the neutral. Indicate the % reactances on the base kVA in the reactance
diagram. The transformer in the system should be represented by a reactance in series.
4) Find the total %reactance of the network up to the point of fault. Let it be X%.

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5) Find the full-load current corresponding to the selected base kVA and the normal system voltage
at the fault point. Let it be I.
6) Then the various short-circuit calculations are:

• Short-circuit current

• Short Circuit kVA =

1.6 Current Limiting Reactors : Need, types, arrangements , comparative advantages and
disadvantages
 Current Limiting Reactor
a) Current limiting reactor is a series reactor, it is an inductive coil having large inductive
reactance in comparison to its resistance
b) It is used to limit the short circuit current during fault conditions.
c) Generally reactance of the system under fault condition is low and fault currents may rise to
dangerously high values.
d) In order to limit the fault current to reasonable magnitudes which the CB can handle, additional
reactances (reactors) are connected in series with system at suitable points.
e) These reactors are called “Current Limiting Reactors”.
f) Current Limiting reactors are installed in Feeders, Generators and Busbars.
g) Under normal conditions the reactor allows the power flow and under short circuit condition the
disturbance is confined to the faulty section.
h) The resistance of Reactor is Very small in comparison to its reactance.
 Classification of Reactors
a) Generator Reactor
• When the Current limiting reactor is connected in
Series with generator it is called as Generator reactor.
• It protect generator individually.
• This system is adopted only when old power station
is to be operated in parallel with new incoming
machine.

Fig 1.4 Generator Reactor

b) Feeder Reactor

• When current limiting reactor connected to protect

feeders is called as feeder reactor. Under fault condition
the bus does not drop the voltage substantially in feeder
hence other feeders are affected less.
It does not protect the generator if S. C. occurs at busbar

Fig 1.5 Feeder Reactor

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c) Busbar Reactor
• The constant loss in the reactor is avoided by inserting the reactor in series with busbar.
• It offers constant voltage drop and constant power loss in the reactor.
• The two types of Busbar reactors are Ring system and tie-bar system.

Fig 1.6 Ring System & Tie Bar System

 Advantages of Current Limiting Reactors
a) Reduction of electromechanical loading and thermal stress of transformers and switchgears.
b) Improvement of the stability of primary bus voltage during a fault on feeder.
c) Reduction of line to line fault current to levels below those of line to ground faults or
vice versa.
d) Protection of distribution transformer, power equipment and devices from the
voltage transients.
e) Increase in system reliability.
f) As fault current/short circuit current is controlled suitable small capacity circuit breaker
can be used safely.
g) Introduction of reactor in the system ensure continuity of supply as troubles are isolated.
h) Current limiting reactor reduces the magnitude of voltage disturbances which is caused
by short circuits.
i) It limits the fault current to flow into the healthy feeders or parts of the system, thereby
avoiding the fault from spreading.
 Drawbacks of current limiting reactor
The main drawbacks of the current limiting reactors are as follows
 When the reactor is installed, the total percentage reactance of the circuit increases.
 It decreases the power factor and thus the regulation becomes poorer.
 Numerical on Short Circuit Fault calculations

 Two 11kV, 3 phase, 5000kVA generators having

reactances of 20% operate in parallel. The generator
supply power to transmission line through 3000kVA
transformer of ratio 22kV/33kV having leakage
reactance of 6%. Calculate Fault kVA on H.T. side
of transformer.
Ans: Assume base KVA = 5000 KVA

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% Reactance related to base KVA

% X = (Base KVA / Rated KVA) x % Reactance on Rated KVA
XG1 = (5000/5000) x 20%
= 20 %
Similarly, XG2 = 20 %
XT = (5000/3000)
x6
= 10 %
For Fault F (HT side)
Total reactance is %X = (XG1 || XG2) + XT
= (20||20)+10
= 10 + 10
% X = 20 %
Rated current at base KVA I = (5000 x 1000) / (√3 x 33 x 1000)
I = 87.477 Amp.
ISC = I x (100 / % X)
= 87.477 x (100 / 20) ISC = 437.385 amp
S.C. KVA = Base KVA x (100/ % X)
= 5000 x (100 /20)
= 25000 KVA
S.C. MVA= 25 MVA

 Fig. shows single line diagram of three phase system.

The percentage reactance of each alternator is based on its
own capacity. Find short circuit current that will flow into
a complete three phase short circuit at „A‟ „F‟

ANS: (NOTE. Here the line voltage is assumed as 11 kV and point ‘A’ is not specified so
fault at F is considered for the calculation of reactance as per assumed base kVA)
Now assume base kVA = 5000 kVA
% Reactance related to base kVA
% X = (Base kVA / Rated kVA) x % Reactance on Rated kVA XA =
(5000/2000) x 10%
= 50
% XB = (5000/5000) x 50%
= 50 %
For Fault at Bus Total reactance ,
% X = XA || XB
= 50 || 50
% X = 25%
Rated current at base kVA = I = (5000 x 1000) / (√3 x 11 x 1000)
I = 262.431 amp ISC = I x (100/% X) = 262.431 x (100/25)
ISC = 1049.724amp
S.C. KVA = Base KVA x (100/ % X) = 5000 x (100 /25)
S.C. KVA =20,000 KVA
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S.C. KVA = 20MVA

 Two three phase generators of rating 1000kVA and
1500kVA, 3.3kV having percentage reactance of 10
and 20 respectively with respect to their ratings, are
connected to bus bars. A three phase short circuit
occurs on the bus. Find the short circuit current.
Ans: Assume base kVA = 1500 kVA

% Reactance related to base kVA

% X = (Base kVA / Rated
kVA) x % Reactance on
Rated kVA
XA = (1500/1000) x 10%
= 15 %
XB = (1500/1500) x 20%
= 20 %
For Fault at Bus Total
reactance ,
% X = XA || XB
= 15 || 20
% X = 8.571
Rated current at base kVA = I = (1500 x 1000) / (√3 x 3.3 x 1000)
I = 262.431amp ISC = I x (100 /% X) =
262.431 x (100 /8.571)
ISC = 3061.848amp
S.C. KVA = Base KVA x (100/ % X) = 1500 x (100 /8.571)
S.C. KVA =17,500.87 KVA
 Two 11kV, 3 phase, 3000kVA generators having reactances of 15% operate in parallel. The
generator supply power to transmission line through 6000kVA transformer of ratio 11kV/22kV
reactance of 5%. Calculate Fault current and fault Kva on H.T. side of transformer.

Assume base KVA = 6000kVA

% Reactance related to base kVA

% X = (Base kVA / Rated kVA) x % Reactance on Rated kVA

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XG1 = (6000/3000) x 15%

= 30 % XG2 = 30 %
XT = (6000/6000) x 5 = 5 %
For Fault at F2 (HT side)
Total reactance is %X = (XG1 || XG2) + XT
=(30||30) + 5
= 15 + 5
%X = 20%
Rated current at base kVA

I = (6000 x 1000) / (√3 x 22 x 1000) I =

157.45Amp.
ISC = I x (100 / % X)

= 157.45 x (100 / 20) ISC = 787.29 Amp

S.C. kVA = Base kVA x (100/ % X)
= 6000 x (100 /20)
S.C. kVA = 30000 Kva
Exercise
1. Explain necessity of Backup protection.
2. Draw symbol of circuit breker and Isolator and write its function.
3. What is current limiting reactor. Explain necessity of current limiting reactor.
4. Differentiate between symmetrical and Unsymmetrical fault.
5. Explain need of protection zone in power system.
Reference Books
1. Mehta V. K ; Rohit Mehta Principles of Power System [Link] and Co., New Delhi., 2016
ISBN: 978- 93-5501-077-3
2. [Link] S. Switchgear and Protection Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2015 ISBN: 978-
93-87394-72-8
3. Gupta. J. B. Switchgear and Protection S. K. Kataria and Sons, New Delhi, 2015ISBN: 978-
93-5014-372-8.
Information Websites
[Link]://[Link]/courses/108101039

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Unit - II
Circuit Interrupting Devices
Course Outcomes (CO):
Select the suitable switchgears for different applications
Theory Learning Outcomes (TLO) aligned to CO:
2.1 Explain the operation with sketches of the given isolators
2.2 Explain with the given terms related to the specified fuse (s).
2.3 Explain the terms related to arc interruption process of the fuse.
2.4 Explain with sketches arc formation, high resistance and zero current interruption in the given
type of circuit breaker.
2.5 Calculate the terms related to circuit interruption based on the given data of the circuit.
2.6 Explain the operation with sketches of the given circuit breaker(s).
2.7 Compare the given circuit interrupting devices on the specified parameters.
2.8 Select the relevant switchgear for the given application with justification.
2.9 Describe the general arrangement of Gas insulated switchgear
2.10 Explain the Insulation coordination for the given installation/machine.
2.11 Classify the Ring main unit switchgear parameters based on given criteria.
2.1 Isolators- Vertical break, Horizontal break and Pantograph type with its advantages and
disadvantages
Isolator
The isolator can be defined as; it is one type of mechanical switch used to isolate a
fraction of the electrical circuit when it is required. Isolator switches are used for opening
an electrical circuit in the no-load condition.
Types of isolator
There are three types of isolators –
i) Horizontal break Isolator,
ii) Vertical Break Isolator,
iii) Pantograph type isolator
Horizontal Break Isolator

1) It consist of three stack of Insulators and one moving rod. Fixed female contacts of metal
are supported on stack of insulator.
2) Male contact rod is connected to central insulating support which can be moved to have
horizontal movement of male contact for opening or closing into the female contacts.
3) The movement of the rod is horizontal 90 degree and its support may be done manually,
electrically or pneumatically by operators.
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4) The operating mechanism disengages or engages the rod into a fixed contact for closing and
opening operation of isolator.
5) The moving contact’s movement is horizontal and hence this type of isolator is named as
horizontal break isolator.
6) The assembly is supported on galvanized steel channel or steel frame. The moving contact can be
move through 90 degree.
Vertical Break Isolator
1) It consist of three stack of Insulators and one moving rod.
2) The two insulators at both end are fixed and middle insulator is act as operating rod which
fixed on operating mechanism.
3) The moving rod is fixed at insulator ad the one end. And from one end it is free to move.
4) The movement of Moving rod vertical 90 degree. So the insulator is called vertical
break insulator.

Pantograph type Isolator

1) The pantograph mechanism is installed on the support insulator and transfers the movement of
the rotating insulator to the arms of the pantograph disconnector.

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2) The springs that compensate the weight of the pantograph arms are installed in enclosure housing.
Each pantograph is equipped with four aluminum arms to ensure a rigid construction.
3) The main contacts are made of copper, with a silver plated surface. The Conducting Pantograph
arm has to be connected to the busbar system.
4) While opening the isolator the arms will get collapse.
5) In closed position the upper two arms of the pantograph closed on head station bus bar by giving
the grip. The current is carried by the upper bus bar to the lower bus bar through connecting arms.
6) While opening rotating insulator column is rotates above its axis. Their by the pantograph
blades are collapse in vertical plane and vertical isolation is obtain between the line terminal and
pantograph upper terminal.
7) Pantograph isolators covers less floor areas and the 3 poles need not to be in line it can be in one
line it can be located at desired angle with the busbar axis.
2.2 HRC fuses – Construction, types, working, Inverse time current
characteristics,characteristics of fuse element, Fuse current rating, Minimum fusing current,
Fusing factor, Prospective current, Cut off Current.
HRC Fuse
Construction of HRC Fuse: HRC fuse mainly consists of heat resisting ceramic body. The fuse
elements are fitted inside the body. The ends of fuse elements are connected to the metal end caps.
The current carrying fuse element is compactly surrounded by the filling powder. Filling material
acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium when the fuse element blows off due to excessive heat
generated under abnormal conditions.

[Link].2.4 HRC Fuse

Types of HRC Fuse

Most HRC fuses are designed for use in industrial applications where cables and machinery require
protection at high voltages. HRC fuses are not required to protect the low voltage/low amperage

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requirements of consumer electronics or automotive applications. This is why most HRC fuses are
often rated at 415V or higher. Some of the most common HRC fuse types are DIN NH blade fuses,
British Standard BS88 fuses, and American or European cartridge fuses.
Working:
Under normal conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it
carries the normal current without overheating. When a fault occurs, the current increases and the
heat produced is sufficient to melt these elements. Fuse element melts before the fault current
reaches its first peak value. Vaporized metal /fuse element chemically reacts with filling powder
and results in the formation of high resistance substance that helps in quenching the arc.
Characteristics of HRC Fuse
• A Fuse operates when its element melts
due to heat produced by I2R, where R is
Fuse resistance. This heat produced
increases if the current flowing through
the Fuse element increases.
• Therefore, we can conclude that a Fuse
element will melt faster for large fault
current while it will take some time for
lower value of fault current.
[Link].2.5 Characteristics of HRC Fuse
• This time-current relationship of Fuse is
known as Characteristics of Fuse and is
very useful for proper selection of Fuse for
a particular circuit and for coordination
purpose. A typical Fuse characteristic is
shown in figure below.
2.3 Terms related to Arc interruption process of fuse – pre-arcing time, cut off value, arcing
time, total operating time, peak of prospective current and applications
1. Prearcing time:
Pre-arcing time is the duration between the start of a fault (like an overcurrent) and the moment the
fuse element melts and an arc is initiated.
2. Cut of Value:
This is the maximum value of the fault current actually reached before the fuse melts.
[Link] time:
This time is the time from the end of the pre-arcing time to the moment the arc is extinguished.
[Link] operating time:
This is the sum of the pre-arcing time and the arcing time.
5. Peak of prospective current:
This is the highest current that flows in a circuit during a fault, assuming no protective device (such
as a fuse) is present to limit it.
2.4 Arc formation process, methods of arc extinction (High resistance and Low resistance).
Electric Arc
Electric Arc is discharge of between electrodes in gas are appears which has voltage drop is called
as electric discharge
Arcing Arc Formation Process
• In normally closed position the contacts are press at high pressure.
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• As the contacts starts separating, the pressure between the contacts reduces first.
• Therefore, area of contact reduces, the current concentrated on a few spots of high
current densities and higher temperature
rise.
• The heat produced due to very high
temperature heats the surrounding medium
and ionizes the medium.
• When the contacts separated arc is produce
between contacts and the arc is surrounded by
ionized gas.
• When the arc discharge takes place
between the contacts then contacts will be get
separated.
Methods for Arc Extinction:
There are two methods of arc extinction:
i) High resistance extinction method
ii) Low resistance or Zero current extinction method
High Resistance Arc Extinction Method:
• It is obtained by increasing the resistance of the Arc
• The resistance is directly proportional to length . The resistance of arc increases, by
increasing the length of arc. The arc length can be increases in following ways
• Lengthening of Arc, Splitting of Arc, Cooling of arc

Lengthening of Arc:
• It is achieve by using arc runners are
lies in plates of conducting materials
which radiates upwards V shaped.
• Arc originates at bottom and travels
upward by electromagnetic force
through arc runners Thus length of arc
increase and finally gets extinguishes.

Splitting of Arc:
• The arc is elongated or slits by arc splitters. The splitters are specially made plates of
fiber glass. Splitters are placed at perpendicular to arc.
• The arc is moved upward by electromagnetic force and get in contact with splitters
Due to which arc can be split into a number of small arcs in series, the voltage available for
the actual arc column is reduced.

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Cooling of arc
• Cooling of arc is done by recombination of partials of cooled air, SF6 gas which
removes ionized heat from the arc.
• The cooling is done by the bringing the arc into contact with cooled air
The voltage required to maintain ionization increases with decrease of temperature of arc, so that
cooling effectively increases the resistance
Current Zero or Low Resistance Method:
This method is employed in a.c. circuit breakers, since the ac passes through zero 100 times/second
in 50 cycle current wave. When current wave passes through every zero, the arc vanishes for a brief
moment. However the arc restrikes again with the rising current waves. In this method, at current
zero instant, fresh unionized medium is introduced between the spaces in between the contacts. Due
to this medium deionization effect takes place. The dielectric strength of the contact space increases
to such an extent that the arc does not continue after current zero.
Dc arc Extinction Method
• For the breaking of DC the natural current zero is not available.
• Hence the problem in the DC circuit Breaker is to bring the current from fault value to
zero value smoothly without chopping.
• The current zero can be achieve by high pressure gas on the arc zone.
• Such a forcing of current zero results in excessive over voltage.
• Hence the switching system should bring down the direct current to zero without chopping.
2.5 Arc voltage, Recovery voltage, Re-striking voltage, Rate of rise of restriking voltage
(RRRV).
The terms related to Arcing phenomenon
Arc Voltage: The voltage that appears across the contacts of circuit breaker during the arcing
period is called as the arc voltage.

Recovery voltage: The normal power frequency r.m.s voltage that appears across the contacts after
the final arc extinction is called recovery voltage
Restriking voltage: The transient voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker at
or near the current zero during the arcing period is called as the Restriking voltage.
RRRV: The RRRV (Rate of Rise of the Restriking Voltage) is defined as the slope of the steepest
tangent to the Restriking voltage curve. It is expressed in volts per micro-second
2.6 HT circuit breakers: Vacuum circuit breaker , Sulphur-hexa Fluoride (SF6) - Working,
construction, specifications and applications and

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2.7 L.T. circuit breaker: Miniature circuit breakers ( MCB ), Moulded case circuit breakers
(MCCB), Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB) , Residual Current Circuit Breaker
(RCCB) and Earth leakage circuit breaker(ELCB), Air circuit breakers (ACB)- Construction,
Working and applications
 Circuit Breaker
a) Circuit Breaker are automatic switches which can be interrupt fault current. Its has
capacity of making and breaking the circuit under normal and abnormal conditions.
b) It consists of set of fixed and moving contact for each pole.
c) The arc produces by separation of contacts is interrupted by suitable medium.
 Types of circuit Breaker
L.T. Circuit Breaker
• Air Circuit breaker (Air Break and air blast C.B.)
• Miniature Circuit Breaker
• Molded Case Circuit Breaker
• Earth Leakage Circuit Braker
H.T. Circuit Breaker
• SF6 Circuit Breaker
• Vacuum Circuit Breaker

 Air Circuit Breaker(Air Break C.B)

a) In Air break circuit breaker the air at atmospheric pressure is used as arc extinguishing medium.
b) It is generally used indoor medium and low voltage Switchgears.
 460V, 400-3500 A, 40-75 kA
 3.5 kV, 400-3500 A, 1.3- 13.5 kA
 6.6 kV, 400-2400 A, 13.1-20 kA
Construction
• There are two sets of contacts Main
contacts and arcing contacts. The main
contact conducts the current in closed
position of Circuit Breaker. The contacts
are generally silver plated and arcing
contacts mainly of copper alloy.
• For upper movement of the arc the arc
runners are connected to arcing contacts.
• For lengthening of arc, the arc splitters
are connected to circuit Breaker
Working
• The current carrying terminals of the circuit breaker sense the fault current and give information
to main contact The main contact conducts the current in closed position of circuit Breaker.
• While in opening position the main contacts separate first then the current is shifted to arcing
contacts.
• The arcing contact separate later and the arc is drawn between the contact.
• The arc is forced to upward position by electromagnetic force. The arc travels upward along
with the arc runners and split by splitters as shown in the fig.
• And thus arc is extinguished by lengthening, pulling and splitting.

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 Air Circuit Breaker(Air Blast C.B)

In air blast circuit breaker high pressure compressed air is used for arc extinguishing
Construction
• The complete assembly of Air blast C.B. consists of three identical poles. At the top of
each pole the arc extinguishers are there.
• It consists of air reservoir in which air at high pressure 20 to 30 atmosphere is stored
• The hollow insulated column is mounted on reservoir with valve.
• It consists of one fixed contact and two moving contacts.
• The current carrying part connects to 3 arc extinguishing chambers in series.
• Whole arc extinguishing assembly is mounted on the insulator.

Working
• In opening condition the air is inserted in the arc extinguishing chamber through nozzle. It
push away the moving contact and contacts get separated.
• It causes the ionized gas takes away along with the arc thus arc extinction takes place.
• Thus within one or two cycle the arc get extinguishes by air blast and the chamber is filled
with fresh high pressure air.

SF6 Circuit Breaker

• In SF6 Circuit breaker Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 gas is used as an arc extinguishing medium.
• SF6 is an inert heavy gas having good dielectric strength and arc extinguishing property.
• SF6 C.B developed for rated voltage 3.6kV to 760kV

Single pressure Puffer type

Construction:
• A Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in
a chamber.
• The chamber is called arc interruption chamber, which contains the Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
gas. This chamber is connected to Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas reservoir.
• A valve mechanism is there to permit the gas to the arc interruption chamber. When the contacts
of breaker are opened, the valve mechanism permits a high-pressure Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas
from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber.
• The nozzle is connected with the cylinder for releasing the gas.
Working
• At normal condition contacts are closed and normal current flows through C.B
• At fault condition when contacts get separate, the moving cylinder connected to moving contact
against the fixed piston is moves . Due to relative motion between moving cylinder and fixed piston
the gas gets compressed in enclosure and is released through nozzle for arc extinction.
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• During travel of moving contact and movable cylinder the gas pumps over the arc and
reduces the arc diameter and arc get extinguished
• This puffing action continues for some time. After arc extinguishing contact space is
filled with Fresh and cooled gas
Double Pressure type Circuit Breaker
• It consists of 2 parts of cylinder, high pressure tank and low pressure tank. Also nozzle to which gas
is passed . An auxiliary tank consists of 14kg per cm square.
• At normal condition contacts are closed and normal current flows through the contacts.
• While opening the contacts the arc is produce in contact.
• During arc extinction the gas from high pressure chamber P1 is passed to low pressure chamber
P2. the flowing gas covers the arc.
• The speed of gas is very high it absorb the heat and free electrons, results in reduction of diameter
of arc and finally arc get extinguished.

Advantages of SF6 CB:

a) Due to superior arc quenching property, they have very short arcing time.
b) As SF6 gas is non-inflammable, no risk of fire.
c) Noiseless operation.
d) It does not pollute the atmosphere.
e) Very much suitable in coal mines etc.
f) They have minimum maintenance cost.
g) The same gas is recycled and reused.
h) There are no carbon deposits on contact tips.
i) It is very much suitable for high voltage applications.
j) Because of very high dielectric strength, effective arc quenching is possible.
k) Disadvantages of SF6 CB:
l) SF6 gas is very costly. Hence this CB is expensive.
m) SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation.
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 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

When two current carrying contacts are separated in vacuum medium its is called as
vacuum circuit breaker. It is used for indoor system up to 36 kV
Construction
Construction. Fig.2.9 shows the parts of a typical vacuum circuit breaker. It consists of fixed contact,
moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The movable member is
connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows. This enables the permanent sealing
of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of leak. A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is
used as the outer insulating body. The arc shield prevents the deterioration of the internal dielectric
strength by preventing metallic vapours falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating cover
Working
• At normal condition, the contacts are closed and normal current flows through circuit.
• During the operation of the breaker, the moving
contact separates from the fixed contact resulting in
arc is form between them.
• The production of arc is due to the ionization of
metal ions and depends very much upon the
materials of contacts.
• The arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic
vapours, electrons and ions produced during arc are
diffused in a short.
• The arc gets extinguished quickly as vacuum has
good recovery of dielectric strength. The arc
extinction occurs at a small vacuum gap of about 0.6
to 0.7cm.
Advantages
• Vacuum circuit Breaker have small contact travel and less weight of moving parts.
• It has very long life of several 1000 operations
• It does not require filling of gas or oil.
• It required modest maintenance.
• The breaker unit is compact in size.
• The operation of VCB is silent.
Applications:
a) Air Blast Circuit Breaker: Air blast circuit breakers are used in electrical systems
operating at 132kV and above upto 400kV.
b) Vacuum Circuit Breaker: Vacuum circuit breakers are used in electrical systems
operating at 11kV, 25kV and 33kV.

Terms Related to Circuit Breaker

a) Arcing time: It is the time measured from the instant of occurrence of cut off (or commencement
of arc) to the instant at which arc is extinguished.
b) Recovery time: The time required for piece of equipment to resume its usual condition following
an action, such as the passage of a current through electrical equipment.
c) Arcing Voltage: The voltage existing between the circuit breaker contacts during arcing is called
as the arc voltage.
d) Breaking Capacity: It is current (r.m.s) that a circuit breaker is capable of breaking at given
recovery voltage under specified conditions (e.g. power factor, rate of rise of Restriking voltage).
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e) Making Capacity: The peak value of current (including d.c. component) during the first cycle of
current wave after the closure of circuit breaker is known as making capacity.
f) Short Time Rating: It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while
remaining closed.
g) Normal Current Rating: It is the r.m.s. value of current which the circuit breaker is capable of
carrying continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions. The only limitation in this
case is the temperature rise of current-carrying parts.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
Construction
• MCB is used to provide protection against overloads and short circuits. It consists of inbuilt
thermal bimetal element and electromagnetic coil.
• The bimetal heats up and bends in response to overcurrent conditions to unlatch a spring operated
mechanism to open the contacts.
• Under short circuit condition, the heavy current passing through magnetic coil produces sufficient
pull to separate the contacts thus provides protection against short circuit.

Working
• MCB is a protecting device used to protect circuit against Overload and short circuit. It
consists of operating mechanism, trip circuit, contacts, Bimetallic strip and hand operated on-off
lever.
• The operating mechanism has three positions ON, OFF and TRIP position.
• The trip unit consists of Bimetallic strip and electromagnet. The Bimetallic trip which provides
the protection against Overload current and Electromagnet provides protection against short circuit
current.
• There are two contacts moving contact and fixed contact. The arc runners and arc splitter are
provided for arc extinction.
Molded case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
What is an MCCB?
Molded Case Circuit Breaker or MCCB is an automatic electrical device. It is a type of circuit
breaker that protects the circuit from overloading, short circuit and current surges. It is an advanced
version of miniature circuit breaker MCB since it operates like one. However, it offers extra features
that make it a superior circuit breaker such as remote closing and adjustable trip settings i.e. its
current settings and time settings can be adjusted according to our needs.
It consists of frame operating mechanism, arc extinguisher, contacts, and trip unit.
• Frame- It provides the insulated housing to mount all C.B. components. It is made-up of glass
polyester material having high dielectric strength.
• Operating mechanism- it handles opening ang closing position of contacts called quick break. The
position of handle indicated the status of contacts i.e. close open or trip.
• Arc extinguisher- It is made up of stack of steel plates held together by insulating plates used to

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extinguish the arc.

• Trip unit- It is the brain of CB. The function is to trip the operating mechanism at the time of
short circuit or Overload condition.
• Contacts- It consists of two contacts Fixed and moving contacts. Normally the contacts are closed
while at fault condition the contacts are separated.
• It consists of frame operating mechanism, arc extinguisher, contacts, and trip unit.
• Frame- It provides the insulated housing to mount all C.B. components. It is made-up of glass
polyester material having high dielectric strength.
• Operating mechanism- it handles opening ang closing position of contacts called quick break. The
position of handle indicated the status of contacts i.e. close open or trip.
• Arc extinguisher- It is made up of stack of steel plates held together by insulating plates used to
extinguish the arc.
• Trip unit- It is the brain of CB. The function is to trip the operating mechanism at the time of short
circuit or Overload condition.
• Contacts- It consists of two contacts Fixed and moving contacts. Normally the contacts are closed
while at fault condition the contacts are separated.

 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

ELCB is a safety device used for protection of circuit from earth fault.
Types of ELCB
According to the operation of ELCB there are two types:
i) Voltage operated ELCB
ii) Current operated ELCB(Also called as Residual Current Circuit Breaker-RCCB)
Voltage operated ELCB
Voltage operated ELCB is a device used to detect voltage when earth Leakage fault is occurs in the
circuit. It consists of six terminals phase in, phase out, Neutral in, Neutral out, Earth, fault terminal.
The body of the load is connected with fault terminals of ELCB and earth terminal is connected to
ground
• For normal working condition the voltage across trip coil is zero as the load body is isolated from
supply line.
• When earth fault occurs on the load, the current will runs through fault to ground.
• It detects by ELCB when voltage of the equipment body is rises which causes difference between
earth and body voltage.
• This difference will produce current to load loop and to earth
• Relay loop moves to relay contacts and finally supply get disconnected.
Current Operated ELCB (RCCB)
RCCB is Residual Current Circuit Breaker which operates when residual current
flowing through the circuit.
It consist of two Primary windings and one secondary winding. Phase coil and neutral coil are
two primary windings. and Surge coil is secondary windings.

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• At normal working condition the current flowing through phase windings , same amount of
current return to neutral winding Ip = In No residual Current flows through surge coil.
• When fault has occurs to load side then some of current from phase current coil will flows
through fault, This makes difference between phase current and neutral current (Ip = In).
• The unstable magnetic field is produced, Residual flux leads to Residual current flowing through
surge coil and Passed through trip coil of relay. Then trip coil will get energized resulting is opening
of Circuit breaker

ELCB is must for a Residential Installation:

When the insulation of equipment fails
and person touches the metal casing,
the leakage current (say i) flows
through human body and he may
receive severe shock. However, if
ELCB is used with residential
installation, it senses the fault current
(leakage current) and operates in very
short time under such conditions and
the current flowing through the body
of person/operator is interrupted. Thus
the person is protected from getting
electric shock.
Referring to the figure, under
normal condition, the phase current I
flows through circuit and same amount
of current I returns through circuit
hence relay does not operate. But
when
fault occurs, a small part of I say i completes its path through fault, human being and earth. The return
current through neutral gets reduced to (I - i). Therefore, flux ϕB reduces to a value less than the
flux ϕA. Hence the resultant flux Φr =(ϕA.- ϕB) induces an emf, which is further amplified and
operates relay circuit within 50ms, resulting into opening of the mains and ultimately protects the
person / operator because of ELCB. So it is must for a residential installation.
• MPCB - It is the Motor Protection Circuit Breaker. It’s function is to produce safe electrical
supply to motor. Also it protects the motor against short circuit fault, line to ground fault, line to
line fault etc.
• RCBO – It is the Residual Current Circuit Breaker with Over Current Protection. It consists of
combine device of MCB and RCCB.
It provides the protection against Over current, short circuit also from earth leakage current
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2.9 Isolator, fuses and circuit breaker: Comparison

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NUMERICAL

A circuit breaker is rated at 2kA, 1000MVA, 33kV, 3Sec, 3-phase. Determine breaking capacity,
making capacity, short time rating of the breaker.
Ans: Breaking capacity = 1000 MVA (given)
Rated symmetrical breaking current = Breaking capacity / (√3 x rated votage)
= 1000 x 10 6 / (√3x33 x103 ) = 17495.46 amps
Rated making current = 2.55 x Symmetrical breaking current
= 2.55 x 17495.46 = 44613.42 amps
(peak) Short time rating = 17495.46 amps for 3 sec.

2.12 Ring Main Unit Switchgear: Introduction, classification based on: type of insulation (gas, oil,
air), installation (outdoor, indoor).
 Ring Main Unit:
A Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a compact, sealed switchgear used in medium-voltage power
distribution networks, particularly in ring main systems. It combines multiple switching and
protection functions within a single unit, making it ideal for ensuring reliable power supply, even in
the event of failures.

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 Types of Ring Main Units

Depending on insulation medium used, the ring main units can be classified into the following three
main types,
a) Air Insulated Ring Main Unit
b) Oil Insulated Ring Main Unit
c) Gas Insulated Ring Main Unit

Air Insulated Ring Main Unit

An air insulated ring main unit is simply a switchgear enclosed within a metal cabinet and it is
primarily used in distribution automation systems. It consists of an air insulated vacuum load break
switch as its core component. Therefore, the air insulated ring main unit has a simple construction
and easy maintenance.
Oil Insulated Ring Main Unit
Oil insulated ring main unit is another type of RMU specially used to install in harsh and corrosive
environmental conditions. In these ring main units, modular ring switches and fuses circuit breaker
are used as the core components. This type of ring main unit is known for its compact design and
fully system extendable feature.
Gas Insulated Ring Main Unit
Gas insulated ring main units use gas as the insulating medium and are used in low to medium
voltage distribution networks to provide uninterrupted power supply and protect the electrical
equipment. These types of ring main units are suitable to use in both indoor and outdoor installations
because of their compact design and efficient operation.
Installation:
RMU (Ring Main Unit) installations are available for both indoor and outdoor applications, with
some designs suitable for both. Indoor installations typically involve placing the RMU within a
switchboard room, while outdoor installations may require a separate enclosure for weather
protection.
Indoor Installation:
Location:
RMUs are often installed in switchboard rooms, which are designated areas for electrical equipment.
Considerations: Proper ventilation and place for maintenance is nessesary.

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Outdoor Installation:
Location:
Requires outdoor installation such as underground cable distribution networks or junction points
Consideration: Enclosures that provide adequate protection from weather conditions should be used.

Exercise
1. Explain the terms Arc voltage, Recovery voltage, Restriking voltage and Rate of rise of
restriking voltage.
2. Distinguish between Isolator and circuit breaker
3. Explain HRC Fuse with neat sketch.
4. Draw vaccum circuit breaker.
5. Explain Arc formation process in circuit breaker.
6. Explain vertical break isolator with neat sketch.
7. Explain construction of Gas insulated switchgear.
8. Give classification of Ring main unit.
9. Distinguish between circuit breaker and fuse.
10. Write properties of SF6 gas.

Reference Books
1. Mehta V. K ; Rohit Mehta Principles of Power System [Link] and Co., New Delhi.,
2016 ISBN: 978- 93-5501-077-3
2. [Link] S. Switchgear and Protection Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2015 ISBN:
978-93-87394-72-8
3. Gupta. J. B. Switchgear and Protection S. K. Kataria and Sons, New Delhi, 2015ISBN:
978-93-5014-372-8.
Information Websites
[Link]://[Link]/courses/108101039

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Unit – III
(Protective Relays)
Course Outcomes (CO)
Test the performance of different protective relays
Learning content mapped with Theory Learning Outcomes (TLO's) and CO's.
3.1 Explain the given terms related to protective relays
3.2 Calculate the relay time based on the given data in the power system.
3.3 Explain with sketches the working of the given protective relay
3.4 Select relevant protective relay for required application with justification.

3.1 Protective Relay: Fundamental quality requirements (Selectivity, Speed, Sensitivity,

Reliability, Simplicity, Economy)
 Fundamental quality requirements
The principal function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal from service of any
element of the power system when it starts to operate in an abnormal manner or interfere with the
effective operation of the rest of the system. In order that protective relay system may perform this
function satisfactorily, it should have the following qualities:
(i) selectivity (ii) speed (iii) sensitivity
(iv) reliability (v) simplicity (vi) economy
i) Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system in
trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
A well designed and efficient relay system should be selective i.e. it should be able to detect the
point at which the fault occurs and cause the opening of the circuit breakers closest to the fault with
minimum or no damage to the system. This can be illustrated by referring to the single line diagram
of a portion of a typical power system shown in Fig. 21.2. It may be seen that circuit breakers are
located in the connections to each power system element in order to make it possible to disconnect
only the faulty section. Thus, if a fault occurs at bus-bars on the last zone, then only breakers nearest
to the fault viz. 10, 11, 12 and 13 should open. In fact, opening of any other breaker to clear the fault
will lead to a greater part of the system being disconnected.

Fig No. 3.1 single line Diagram of part of power system

In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is a usual practice to divide the entire system into
several protection zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the circuit breakers within
that zone will be opened. This will isolate only the faulty circuit or apparatus, leaving the healthy
circuits intact. The system can be divided into the following protection zones :
(a) generators (b) low-tension switchgear (c) transformers
(d) high-tension switchgear (e) transmission lines
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It may be seen in Fig. 21.2 that there is certain amount of overlap between the adjacent protection
zones. For a failure within the region where two adjacent zones overlap, more breakers will be
opened than the minimum necessary to disconnect the faulty section. But if there were no overlap,
a failure in the region between zones would not lie in either region and, therefore, no breaker would
be opened. For this reason, a certain amount of overlap* is provided between the adjacent zones.
ii) Speed. The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the
following reasons :
(a) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault currents for a long time.
(b) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If the faulty section is
not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault may shut down con- sumers’
motors and the generators on the system may become unstable.
(c) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type of fault into
the other more severe type.
iii) Sensitivity. It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity.
Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-amperes input to the coil of the relay necessary to
cause its operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause relay operation, the more
sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1 VA relay is more sensitive than a 3 VA relay. It is desirable that
relay system should be sensitive so that it operates with low values of volt-ampere input.
iv) Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined condi- tions.
Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective and could even be- come a
liability.
v) Simplicity. The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained. Reli- ability
is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
vi) Economy. The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of protection and
a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than
5% of total cost. However, when the apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g.
generator, main transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often subordinated to
reliability.
3.2 Basic relay terminology- Protective relay, Relay time, Pick up, Reset current, current
setting, Plug setting multiplier, Time setting multiplier.
 Protective relay

Fig No. 3.2 Protective Relay

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A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker
to ioslate the defective element from the rest of the system.
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the
electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions. The electrical quantities
which may change under fault conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Through
the changes in one or more of these quantities, the faults signal their presence, type and location to
the protective relays. Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the
breaker. This results in the opening of the breaker and disconnection of the faulty circuit.
A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig. 21.1. This diagram shows one phase of 3-phase system for
simplicity. The relay cir- cuit connections can be divided into three parts viz.
(i) First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series
with the line to be protected.
(ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay operating coil.
(iii) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It consists of a source of supply,
the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing in the line
increases to an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing
the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making
the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this way, the
relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and normal working of the healthy
portion of the system.
 Relay time: "relay time" refers to the time it takes for a relay to perform a specific action, like
opening or closing contacts, after a trigger or change in the input signal. This can include the time
to operate, the time to reset, or the time to delay an action.
 Pick-up current. It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate.
So long as the current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not operate and the
breaker controlled by it remains in the closed position. However, when the relay coil current is equal
to or greater than the pickup value, the relay operates to energise the trip coil which opens the circuit
breaker.

Fig No. 3.3 Current Setting

 Reset current
"reset current" refers to the current level at which a protective device, like a relay, will return to its
normal, non-operating state after a fault has been cleared. It's the point at which the protective
device no longer detects a fault condition and can re-engage the circuit.
 Current setting. It is often desirable to ad- just the pick-up current desirable to ad- just the pick-
up current to any required value. This is known as current setting and is usually achieved by the use
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of tappings on the relay operating coil. The taps are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in Fig.
21.14. The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on the relay coil. This changes the torque
on the disc and hence the time of operation of the relay. The values assigned to each tap are
expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of C.T. with which the relay is associated and
represents the value above which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip circuit.

Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. * Current setting

For example, suppose that an overcurrent relay having current setting of 125% is connected to a
supply circuit through a current transformer of 400/5. The rated secondary current of C.T. is 5
amperes.
Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25% more than 5 A i.e. 5 *1•25 = 6•25 A. It means that with
above current setting, the relay will actually operate for a relay coil current equal to or greater than
6•25 A.
The current plug settings usually range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for overcurrent relays
and 10% to 70% in steps of 10% for earth leakage relays. The desired current setting is obtained by
inserting a plug between the jaws of a bridge type socket at the tap value required.
 Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.) It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current
i.e.
P.S.M. = Fault current in relay coil
Pick - up current
= Fault current in relay coil
Rated secondary current of CT * Current setting
For example, suppose that a relay is connected to a 400/5 current transformer and set at 150%. With
a primary fault current of 2400 A, the plug-setting multiplier can be calculated as under :
Pick-up value = Rated secondary current of CT * Current setting
= 5 * 1•5 = 7•5 A
Fault current in relay coil = 2400 *(5/400)
=30 A
PSM= (30/7.5) =4
 Time-setting multiplier

Fig No. 3.4 Time Setting Multiplier

A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation.
This adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier. The time-setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1
in steps of 0.05 sec (see Fig. 21.15). These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time
derived from time/P.S.M. curve into the actual operating time. Thus if the time setting is 0•1 and
the time obtained from the time/P.S.M. curve is 3 seconds, then actual relay operating time = 3 *
0•1 = 0•3 second.

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For instance, in an induction relay, the time of operation is controlled by adjusting the amount of
travel of the disc from its reset position to its pickup position. This is achieved by the adjustment of
the position of a movable backstop which controls the travel of the disc and thereby varies the time
in which the relay will close its contacts for given values of fault current. A so-called “time dial”
with an evenly divided scale provides this adjustment. The actual time of operation is calculated by
multiplying the time setting multiplier with the time obtained from time/P.S.M. curve of the relay.
3.3 Electromagnetic disc relay, Thermal relay, over voltage relay, Over current, Earth fault
relay: Operation and its characteristics
 Electromagnetic disc relay

Fig No. 3.5 Electromagnetic disc relay

1. This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to
rotate in between them. The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the electromagnet
is obtained by the flux generated by the two magnets having different resistance and inductance for
the two circuits.
2. The E-shaped electromagnet carries the two windings the primary and the secondary. The
primary current was carrying the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the
windings of the U-shaped electromagnet.
3. The primary winding carries relay current I1 while the secondary current induces the emf in the
secondary and so circulate the current I2 in it. The flux φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and the
flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet. These fluxes induced in the upper and lower magnetic differs
in phase by angle θ which will develop a driving torque on the disc proportional to φ1φ sinθ.
4. The most important feature of the relay is that opening can control their operation or close the
secondary winding circuit. If the secondary winding is opened, then no torque will be developed,
and thus relay can be made inoperative.
 Thermal relay

Fig No. 3.6 Thermal relay

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A thermal relay is defined as a device that uses the unequal expansion rates of metals in a bimetallic
strip to detect overcurrent conditions. The thermal relay operates by heating a bimetallic strip,
causing it to bend and close normally open contacts, triggering a circuit breaker.
It consists of a bimetallic strip with metals having different coefficients of expansion, a heating coil,
and contacts. Thermal relays are used for overload protection, especially in electric motors, where
they prevent tripping from short-term overloads. The coefficient of expansion is a fundamental
property of materials. Different metals have varying rates of linear expansion. A bimetallic strip
bends when heated because of the different expansion rates of the two metals.
 Working Principle of Thermal Relay
A thermal relay works depending upon the above-mentioned property of metals. The basic working
principle of thermal relay is that, when a bimetallic strip is heated up by a heating coil carrying over
current of the system, it bends and makes normally open contacts.
The construction of thermal relay is quite simple.
The strip bends, the NO contact is closed which ultimately energizes the trip coil of a circuit breaker.
The heating effect is not instantaneous. As per Joule’s law of heating, the amount of heat generated
is

Here, I represents the over current flowing through the heating coil of the thermal relay.
R is the electrical resistance of the heating coil, t is the time for which the current I flows through
the heating coil. Hence from the above equation it is clear that, heat generator by the coil is directly
proportional to the time during which the over current flows through the coil. Hence there is a
prolonged time delay in the operation of thermal relay.
 Over voltage relay
Overvoltage relay are the guards in electrical systems needed to protect against the chances of
having abnormal high voltage levels. They are constantly monitoring the factors like voltage and
relying on their well-established mechanisms such as the tripping circuit breakers to prevent
dangerous system failures. Relays can provide a means to generate trip signal as a result of
overvoltage incidents wherein the downstream protection trips are sent to isolate the faulted section
of the equipment. It prevents damage of electrical systems, thus guarantees the safety of the system’s
equipment, and its reliability in delivering uninterrupted power supply. Mostly, the type of
equipment urged by voltage surges from lightning, switching and transient interferences rely on
overcurrent relays.
Over current Relay

Fig No. 3.7 (Overcurrent Relay)

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The overcurrent relay is responsible for protecting the system from heavy current flow. It facilitates
the protection of electrical equipment and systems from damage caused by overloading, short
circuits, and other anomalous conditions. If the current increases the threshold value for a particular
duration of time, the relay will send a trip single that will interrupt the circuit, this will isolate the
circuit from the faulty area with defined boundaries. These can recognize various types of
malfunctions, including short periods of inactivity, overburden, and ground-based malfunctions.
They have a significant impact on maintaining the stability of the device and preventing it from
experiencing malfunctions.
 Earth fault relay:

Fig No. 3.8 Earth Fault Relay

The earth fault relay is used in electrical systems for the purpose of protection against faults, which
involve breakage or connection that extends from the earth (ground) to an electric circuit. It deals
with equipment damage, electrical shocks, and fires since it cuts the circuit on locating a fault. Earth
fault relays has a configuration with selective settings. Also, a critical activity of this operation, is
specially done so that the disruption is minimized to other segments of the electric grid which are
still in operation. These earth faults relays are multiple in their way of operation, and therefore, the
application. Some of the relays are based on the residual current which flows in the system's neutral
conductor; the others are based on the detection of small fault current to the ground, and the other
last type are based on the large fault current which flows to the ground with low resistance.
3.4 Static, Digital Relay (Microprocessor based): Block diagram, working, advantages and
limitations. Numerical relay: Introduction
Static, Digital Relay (Microprocessor based): Block diagram, working, advantages and
limitations.
 Static Relay
The static relay block diagram is shown below. The static relay components in this block diagram
mainly include a rectifier, amplifier, o/p unit & relay measuring circuit. Here, the measuring circuit
of the relay includes the level detectors, logic gate & the comparators like amplitude & phase.

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Fig No. 3.9 Static Relay

In the above block diagram, the transmission line is simply connected to the current transformer
(CT) or potential transformer (PT) so that the transmission line provides the input to the CT/PT.
The output of the current transformer is given as an input to the rectifier which rectifies the input
AC signal into the DC signal. This DC signal is given to the measuring unit of a relay.
The measuring unit relay performs the most significant action necessary within the static relay
system by detecting the input signal level throughout the level detectors and evaluating the
magnitude & phase of the signal throughout the comparators to perform the logic gate operations.
In this relay, two kinds of comparators are used amplitude and phase comparators. The main
function of the amplitude comparator is to compare the input signal’s magnitude whereas the phase
comparator is used to compare the phase variation of the input quantity.
The relay measuring unit o/p is given to the amplifier so that it amplifies the signal’s magnitude &
transmits it to the o/p device. So this device will strengthen the trip coil so that it trips the CB (circuit
breaker).
For the operation of the amplifier, the measuring unit of the relay & the o/p device requires an extra
DC supply. So this is the main drawback of this static relay.
 Static Relay Working Principle
The working of the static relay is, first, the current transformer/potential transformer receives the
input voltage/current signal from the transmission line & gives it to the rectifier. After that, this
rectifier changes the AC signal into DC and this is given to the measuring unit of the relay.
Now, this measuring unit identifies the input signal level after that it comparators the magnitude &
the phase of the signal with the available comparator in the measuring unit. This comparator
compares the i/p signal to make sure whether the signal is defective or not. After that, this amplifier
amplifies the signal’s magnitude & transmits it to the o/p device to activate the trip coil to trip the
circuit breaker.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of static relay include the following.
• These relays consume very less power.
• This relay gives very quick response, high reliability, accuracy, and long life & it is shockproof.
• It doesn’t include any thermal storage troubles
• This type of relay amplifies the i/p signal which enhances their sensitivity.
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• The unwanted tripping chance is less.

• These relays have maximum resistance to shock, so they can operate easily in earthquake-prone
regions.
• It needs less maintenance.
• It has a very quick response time.
• These types of relays give resistance to shock & vibrations.
• It has a very quick resetting time.
• It operates for an extremely long period
• It consumes very less power & draws power from a secondary dc supply
The disadvantages of static relays include the following.
• The components used in this relay are extremely responsive to the electrostatic discharges which
mean unexpected electron flows between the charged objects. So, special maintenance is necessary
to the components so that it does not affect the electrostatic discharges.
• This relay is affected easily by high voltage surges. So, precautions must be taken to avoid
damage throughout voltage spikes.
• The relay working mainly depends on the used components in the circuit.
• This relay has less overloading capacity.
• Compared to the electromagnetic relay, this relay is extremely costly.
• This relay construction is simply affected by the surrounding interference.
• These are responsive to voltage transients.
• The semiconductors devices’ characteristics like diodes, transistors, etc. utilized in these relays
change by temperature & aging.
• The reliability of these relays mainly depends on a number of small components & their
connections.
• These relays have less short-time overload capacity as compared to electromechanical relays.
• The operation of this relay can be simply affected because of the aging of the components.
• This relay operation speed is limited by the component’s mechanical inertia.
• These are not applicable for commercial purposes.
Digital Relay (Microprocessor based)
With the fast development in large scale integrated (LSI) technology, sophisticated and fast
microprocessors are now available. With the rapid growth of modern complex large power system
networks, fast, accurate and reliable protective schemes are essential. Microprocessor Based Digital
Relay schemes are becoming more and more popular for power system protection as they offer
attractive compactness and flexibility. They reduce the number of types of relay units.
An interface employing op-amps, analog multiplexer analog-digital (A/D) converter, voltage
comparators and passive elements have been developed to provide the characteristics of various
types of relays such as definite time relays, inverse-time overcurrent relays, phase comparators and
reverse power relays etc.

Fig No. 3.10 Digital Relay (Microprocessor based)

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The three-phase ac quantities received from the power system through CTs and PTs are sampled
simultaneously or sequentially at uniform time intervals (4 to 32 samples per cycle). They are then
converted into the digital form through an A/D converter and transferred to digital processor. Digital
signals are in the form of coded square pulses which represent discrete data. The signals are in binary
form. The microprocessor/digital processor being set with the recommended values compares the
dynamic inputs and decides accordingly to generate trip/alarm signal to the output device.
 Advantage of Microprocessor Based Digital Relay:
Microprocessor Based Digital Relay have numerous advantages. They have a very small burden on
the CTs and PTs. Saturation can be avoided by using air-gap CT having a limited output. They can
process and display the signals very efficiently, accurately and in a fastest possible manner. Due to
their programmable characteristics, they can he applied extensively in the protection of electrical
power systems. Moreover, one microprocessor unit may be able to perform relaying function of
several systems.
Microprocessor relays are more reliable and secure to relay engineers because they can alert the user
to a malfunction before a false trip or failure to trip occurs. However, the microprocessors should
be properly shielded from external influences and the system earthing must be very good from which
they receive their control voltage.
 Limitation of Microprocessor Based Digital Relay:
o Cost:
Microprocessor-based relays generally have a higher initial cost compared to older
electromechanical or static relay types. This is due to the advanced technology and components
required for their operation.
o Complexity:
The intricate software and hardware within digital relays can make them complex to troubleshoot
and maintain. This can lead to increased maintenance costs and downtime if not properly managed.
o Software and Hardware Vulnerabilities:
Digital relays rely on software and hardware, which can be susceptible to errors, bugs, and
cyberattacks. These vulnerabilities can lead to unexpected tripping, incorrect fault detection, or even
system instability.
o Power Dependence:
Microprocessor-based relays require external power sources to operate, which can make them
vulnerable to power outages. In some cases, they may have backup power supplies, but these can
also be prone to failure.
o Maintenance and Calibration:
Digital relays often require regular maintenance, calibration, and firmware updates to ensure
accurate and reliable operation. This can add to the overall operational costs and complexity.
o Cybersecurity Risks:
The network connectivity and data processing capabilities of digital relays can make them targets
for cyberattacks. Protecting these relays from cyber threats requires specialized security measures
and expertise.
o Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC):
While digital technology is generally more noise-protected than analog, microprocessor-based
relays still need to be designed with EMC in mind to avoid interference from external
electromagnetic fields.
o Limited processing capacity:

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The microprocessors used in digital relays may have limited processing power and memory
compared to numerical relays, potentially limiting their functionality and processing speed.
o Potential for unexpected tripping:
Although generally reliable, digital relays can, in rare cases, experience unexpected tripping due to
software bugs, hardware failures, or other unforeseen issues.
 Numerical relay: Introduction
Numeric relays are the evolved form of a static and electromagnetic relay. They are basically a
device used for measuring electric parameters in an electrical network and convert them into
numerical data which undergoes mathematical and logical analysis to decide on tripping an
electrical network.
The main purpose of a numerical relay is to protect the electrical network from unexpected fault
currents. Numerical relays are mostly preferred because of their versatile characteristics. A single
Numerical relay can monitor multiple parameters like current, voltage, Frequency, onset time, offset
time, etc. And the same relay can be used for analysing and monitoring multiple faults such as over
current, over fluxing, different current and more.

Fig No. 3.11 Numerical Relay

3.5 Distance relaying- Principle
Working Principle of Distance or Impedance Relay: The operation of an impedance relay is
straightforward. It uses a voltage element from a potential transformer and a current element from
a current transformer. The relay’s action depends on the balance between the restoring torque (from
voltage) and the deflecting torque (from current).
Normal vs. Fault Conditions: Under normal conditions, the restoring torque (from voltage) exceeds
the deflecting torque (from current), keeping the relay inactive. During a fault, increased current
and reduced voltage shift this balance, activating the relay by closing its contacts. Thus, the relay’s
function is determined by the impedance, or the voltage to current ratio.
Activation Threshold: The impedance relay activates when the voltage to current ratio, or
impedance, falls below a predefined value. This typically indicates a fault within a specific,
predetermined distance along the transmission line, as line impedance is proportionate to its length.
3.6 Directional relay: Need and operation with block diagram.
 Need:
Directional relays are needed in electrical systems to determine the direction of power flow,
allowing for selective protection of transmission lines and equipment. They operate by comparing
the phase angle between current and voltage to identify the direction of fault current.

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 block diagram

Fig No. 3.12 Directional Relay

• Potential Transformer (PT) Section: This portion includes a potential transformer, which
reduces the voltage of the power system to a level that the relay can process. The potential
transformer sends a proportionate voltage signal to the relay dependent on the voltage in the power
system.
• Current Transformer (CT) Section: This part has one or more current transformers that reduce
the current flowing through the power supply to a level suitable for the relay to manage. The current
transformers send a proportional current signal to the relay based on the current flow in the system.
• Potential Coil: The potential coil, also called the voltage coil, is a winding inside the relay that
receives the voltage signal from the potential transformer. It is normally linked in parallel with the
system and serves as a reference for determining the direction of power flow.
• Current Coil: The current coil, also known as the directional coil, receives current signals from
the current transformers. It is normally connected in series with the system, generating a magnetic
field proportionate to the current running through it.
• To Trip Circuit Section: This section describes the mechanism for tripping the circuit breaker
when a fault is identified. The directional relay identifies whether the fault is in the forward or
backward direction by comparing the voltage and current signals received from the potential and
current coils. If a failure is identified in the forward direction, the relay transmits a trip signal to the
circuit breaker, which isolates the faulty component of the system.
Operation
The relay constantly monitors the current and voltage signals from the CTs and PTs, respectively.
These transformers reduce the current and voltage levels to reasonable amounts for the relay to
handle. The relay compares the phase angle of the current and voltage signals. By examining the
phase connection between current and voltage, the relay can determine the direction of power flow
in the electrical circuit.
Based on specified parameters and logic, the relay determines whether the current flow is in the
intended (ahead) or opposing (reverse) direction. If the current flows in the forward direction
according to the established values, it indicates normal operation. However, if the current flows in
the opposite direction or exceeds predefined thresholds, signaling a failure, the relay takes
preventative action.
When the directional relay detects a fault or abnormal state, it sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker
connected with the faulty component of the system. This step separates the problematic portion from

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the remainder of the system, preventing equipment damage while also ensuring the electrical
network’s stability and safety.

3.7 Current and Voltage differential relay: Operation

 Current Differential Relay
This relay compares the currents going into and out of the protected equipment, like a transformer.
It looks for any difference in these currents which indicates an internal fault. Normally, the currents
going in and out are equal, so the relay does not operate. However, during an internal fault, these
currents become unequal. The relay detects this current difference and trips the circuit breaker to
isolate the faulty equipment.

Fig No. 3.13 Current differential Relay

 Voltage Balance Differential Relay
This type compares the voltages on either side of the protected equipment, like a generator winding.
It checks if these voltages are different in value or out of phase with each other. The relay has the
two current transformers (CTs) connected to the winding. In normal conditions the voltages
measured by the both CTs are the same so no current flows through the relays operating coil. But
during the fault the voltages becomes different. This voltage difference creates the current in the
relay's operating coil, causing it to trip.

Fig No. 3.14 Voltage Balance Differential Relay

Exercise
1. Explain the terminology related to Protective Relays.
2. Calculate the relay time based on the given data in a power system.
3. Explain the working principle of the given protective relay with diagrams.

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4. Explain the working principles and characteristics of: Electromagnetic Disc Relay, Thermal
Relay, Over-voltage Relay, Over-current Relay, Earth Fault Relay
5. Explain the necessity and working principle of a Directional Relay with a block diagram.
6. Select and justify the appropriate protective relay for a given application.
Reference Books:
1. [Link] S. Switchgear and Protection Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2015 ISBN: 978-93-
87394-72-8
2. Gupta. J. B. Switchgear and Protection S. K. Kataria and Sons, New Delhi, 2015ISBN: 978-93-
5014-372-8.
3. Singh, R. P. PHI Learning, New Delhi,2015 ISBN: 978-81-203-3660-5.
Information Websites
[Link]://[Link]/courses/108101039
[Link]://[Link]/
[Link]://[Link].

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Unit - IV
Protection of Alternators, Motors, Transformers, Busbars and Transmission
lines
Course Outcomes (CO)
Use suitable protection schemes for alternators, motors, transformers, busbars and transmission
lines.
Learning content mapped with Theory Learning Outcomes (TLO) and CO
4.1 Describe the causes and remedies of the given faults in the specified machine.
4.2 Explain with sketches the given protection schemes of the specified machine
4.3 Calculate percentage of winding protected for the specified alternator
4.4 Calculate CT ratio of the specified transformer protection scheme.
4.5 Explain the causes and remedies of the given faults in the busbar and transmission line
Syllabus:-
4.1 Abnormalities and Faults occurring in alternator
4.2 Differential, Overcurrent , Earth fault Protection: Schemes
4.3 Reverse power protection: Scheme
4.4 Abnormalities and Faults occurring in transformer
4.5 Differential, over current, earth fault, over heating protection.
4.6 Limitations of differential protection.
4.7 Buchholz relay: Construction, operation.
4.8 Motor: Abnormalities and Faults, Short circuit protection, Overload protection, Single phase
preventer.
4.9 Busbar: Faults, busbar protection, differential and fault bus protection.
4.10 Transmission Line: Faults, Over current, Distance and Pilot wire protection.

4.1 Abnormalities and Faults occurring in alternator

Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are :
a) failure of prime-mover
b) failure of field
c) overcurrent
d) overvoltage
e) overspeed
f) unbalanced loading
g) stator winding faults
4.2 Differential, Overcurrent , Earth fault Protection: Schemes
 Differential Protection of Alternators:-
The most common system used for the protection of stator winding faults employs circulating-
current principle. In this scheme of protection, currents at the two ends of the protected section are
compared. Under normal operating conditions, these currents are equal but may become unequal on
the occurrence of a fault in the protected section. The difference of the currents under fault
conditions is arranged to pass through the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its
contacts to isolate protected section from the system. This form of protection is also known as Merz-
Price circulating current scheme.
Schematic arrangement. Fig.4.1 shows the schematic arrangement of current differential protection
for a 3-phase alternator. Identical current transformer pairs CT1 and CT2 are placed on either side
of each phase of the stator windings. The secondaries of each set of current transformers are
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connected in star ; the two neutral points and the corresponding terminals of the two star groups
being connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable. Thus there is an independent path for
the currents circulating in each pair of current transformers and the corresponding pilot P.

Figure. 4.1
The relay coils are connected in star, the neutral point being connected to the current-trans former
common neutral and the outer ends one to each of the other three pilots. In order that burden on each
current transformer is the same, the relays are connected across equipotential points of the three
pilot wires and these equipotential points would naturally be located at the middle of the pilot wires.
The relays are generally of electromagnetic type and are arranged for instantaneous action since
fault should be cleared as quickly as possible.
Operation.
Referring to Fig. 4.1, it is clear that the relays are connected in shunt across each circulating path.
Therefore, the circuit of Fig. 4.1 can be shown in a simpler form in Fig. 4.2. Under normal operating
conditions, the current at both ends of each winding will be equal and hence the currents in the
secondaries of two CTs connected in any phase will also be equal. Therefore, there is balanced
circulating current in the pilot wires and no current flows through the operating coils (R1, R2 and
R3) of the relays. When an earth-fault or phase-to-phase fault occurs, this condition no longer holds
good and the differential current flowing through the relay circuit operates the relay to trip the circuit
breaker.

Figure.4.2

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 Overcurrent : Schemes of Alternator:-

It occurs mainly due to partial breakdown of winding insulation or due to overload on the supply
system. Overcurrent protection for alternators is considered unnecessary because of the following
reasons :
a) The modern tendency is to design alternators with very high values of internal impedance so that
they will stand a complete short-circuit at their terminals for sufficient time without serious
overheating. On the occurrence of an overload, the alternators can be disconnected manually.
b) The disadvantage of using overload Protection of Alternators is that such a protection might
disconnect the alternators from the power plant bus on account of some momentary troubles outside
the plant and, therefore, interfere with the continuity of electric service.
 Earth fault Protection: Schemes of Alternator:-
In small-size alternators, the neutral ends of the three-phase windings are often connected internally
to a single terminal. Therefore, it is not possible to use Merz-Price circulating current principle
described above because there are no facilities for accommodating the necessary current
transformers in the neutral connection of each phase winding. Under these circumstances, it is
considered sufficient to provide protection against earth-faults only by the use of balanced earth-
fault protection scheme. This scheme provides no protection against phase-to-phase faults, unless
and until they develop into earth-faults, as most of them will.
Schematic arrangement. Fig. 4.3 shows the schematic arrangement of a balanced earth-fault
protection for a 3-phase alternator. It consists of three line current transformers, one mounted in
each phase, having their secondaries connected in parallel with that of a single current transformer
in the conductor joining the star point of the alternator to earth. A relay is connected across the
transformers secondaries. The protection against earth faults is limited to the region between the
neutral and the line current transformers.
Operation. Under normal operating conditions, the currents flowing in the alternator leads and hence
the currents flowing in secondaries of the line current transformers add to zero and no current flows
through the relay. Also under these conditions, the current in the neutral wire is zero and the
secondary of neutral current transformer supplies no current to the relay. If an earth-fault develops
at F2 external to the protected zone, the sum of the currents at the terminals of the alternator is
exactly equal to the current in the neutral connection and hence no current flows through the relay.
When an earth-fault occurs at F1 or within the protected zone, these currents are no longer equal
and the differential current flows through the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its
contacts to disconnect the alternator from the system.

Figure. 4.3

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4.3 Reverse power protection: Scheme

A synchronous Generator / Alternator is expected to supply active power to the system in normal
operating condition. If the turbine i.e. prime mover fails the Generator / Alternator connected to the
system will continue to operate as synchronous Motor drawing active power from the system. This
reversal of power flow due to loss of prime mover can be detected by reverse power relay.
The consequences of generator motoring and the level of power drawn from the power
system will be dependent on the type of prime mover as under this condition prime mover acts as a
load for synchronous Motor. For steam turbines, the motoring power is around 0.5-3 % of rated
power of Generator. Under the failure of prime mover, due to motoring of turbine windage loss will
be more in turbine blades as there is no steam to cool it down. Thus it will lead to damage of turbine.
Reverse Power element of Numerical Relay calculates the three phase active power using its current
and voltage input based on the following formula,
P = VaIaCosØa + VbIbCosØb + VcIcCosØc
The Numerical Relay is connected with the convention that the forward current is the current
flowing from the generator to the busbar. This corresponds to positive values of the active power
flowing in the forward direction. When a generator is operating in the motoring mode, the machine
is consuming active power from the power system and if this active power crosses the set value,
then after the set time delay the relay will operate to trip the Breaker as shown in fig.4.4.

Figure. 4.4
Normally reverse power setting is kept less than 50% of the motoring power. For example if the
motoring power of steam turbine is 4% then reverse power setting shall be kept less than 2%. It shall
also be noted that reverse power protection is provided with a time delay of around 5 s to prevent
spurious operation due to disturbances or following synchronization.
4.4 Abnormalities and Faults occurring in transformer
Transformers can experience a variety of abnormalities and faults, stemming from both internal and
external factors.
1. Internal Faults:
 Insulation Failure:
This is a common problem, often caused by electrical stress, overheating, or moisture ingress, and
can lead to short circuits or fires.
 Core Faults:
Damage to the transformer core, such as insulation degradation or cracks, can cause issues over time
if not addressed.
 Winding Faults:
These include short circuits between windings or turns, as well as wire breakage, which can be
caused by mechanical stress or electrical faults.
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 Tap Changer Issues:

Faults in the tap changer, which regulates voltage, can lead to improper voltage regulation and
overheating.
2. External Faults:
 Short Circuits:
External short circuits can cause high currents to flow through the transformer, leading to
overheating and damage.
 Overloading:
Operating a transformer beyond its rated capacity can cause overheating and insulation breakdown.
 Lightning and Surges:
Lightning strikes and voltage surges can cause significant damage to the transformer's insulation.
 Cooling System Failure:
If the cooling system (oil pumps, fans, radiators) malfunctions, it can lead to overheating.
Other Factors:
 Moisture: Moisture in the transformer oil can degrade insulation and lead to faults.
 Oil Contamination: Contaminated oil can also negatively impact insulation and lead to faults.
 Mechanical Damage: Physical damage to the transformer, such as dents or cracks, can
compromise its integrity.
 Inrush Currents: Sudden surges of current when the transformer is energized can cause stress on
the windings.
Consequences of Faults:
 Overheating: Excessive heat can damage insulation and lead to further faults.
 Short Circuits: Internal or external short circuits can cause significant damage and potential fire
hazards.
 Explosions: In extreme cases, severe faults can lead to transformer explosions, posing significant
safety risks.
 Power Outages: Faults can disrupt power supply, leading to outages for consumers.
4.5 Differential, over current, earth fault, over heating protection.
 Differential Protection Scheme in a Transformer:
At maximum through fault current, the spill output produced by the small percentage unbalance
may be substantial. Therefore, differential protection of transformer should be provided with a
proportional bias of an amount which exceeds in effect the maximum ratio deviation.
Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-to-phase fault and
phase to earth faults. The differential protection used for power transformers is based on Merz-Prize
circulating current principle. Such types of protection are generally used for transformers of rating
exceeding 2 MVA.
Connection:
The power transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected on the other side. The CTs
on the star connected side are delta-connected and those on delta-connected side are star-connected.
The neutral of the current transformer star connection and power transformer star connections are
grounded as shown in Fig.4.5.
The restraining coil is connected between the secondary winding of the current transformers.
Restraining coils controls the sensitive activity occurs on the system. The operating coil is placed
between the tapping point of the restraining coil and the star point of the current transformer
secondary windings.

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Figure.4.5
Working:
Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current are balanced on both the side of the
power transformers. When the internal fault occurs in the power transformer windings the balanced
is disturbed and the operating coils of the differential relay carry current corresponding to the
difference of the current among the two sides of the transformers. Thus, the relay trip the main
circuit breakers on both sides of the power transformers.
 Over Current Protection of Transformer:-
Backup protection of electrical transformer is simple over Current protection are applied against
external short circuit and excessive over loads. This over current may be of Inverse Definite
Minimum Time (IDMT) or Definite Time type relays (DMT). Generally IDMT relays are
connected to the in-feed side of the transformer.
Overcurrent relays cannot differentiate between external short circuits, overloads, and internal
faults of the transformer. Backup protection, using overcurrent protection on the in-feed side, will
activate for any of the faults.
Backup protection is usually installed on the in-feed side of the transformer, but it should trip both
the primary and secondary circuit breakers.
 Earth Fault Protection of Transformer:-
An earth-fault usually involves a partial breakdown of winding insulation to earth. The resulting
leakage current is considerably less than the short-circuit current. The earth-fault may continue for
a long time and cause considerable damage before it ultimately develops into a short-circuit and
removed from the system. Under these circumstances, it is profitable to employ earth-fault relays in
order to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault or leak in the early stage. An earth-fault relay is
essentially an overcurrent relay of low setting and operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak develops.
One method of protection against earth-faults in a transformer is the core-balance leakage protection
shown in Fig.4.6.

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Fig.4.6
The three leads of the primary winding of power trans former are taken through the core of a current
transformer which carries a single secondary winding. The operating coil of a relay is connected to
this secondary. Under normal conditions (i.e. no fault to earth), the vector sum of the three phase
currents is zero and there is no resultant flux in the core of current transformer no matter how much
the load is out of balance. Consequently, no current flows through the relay and it remains
inoperative. However, on the occurrence of an earth-fault, the vector sum of three phase currents is
no longer zero. The resultant current sets up flux in the core of the C.T. which induces e.m.f. in the
secondary winding. This energises the relay to trip the circuit breaker and disconnect the faulty
transformer from the system.
 Over Heating Protection of Transformer:-
Thermal Over-Heating Protection of Large Transformers: Thermocouples or resistor
temperature detectors are kept near each winding. These are connected to a bridge circuit. When
temperature increases above safe value, an alarm is sounded. If measures are not taken, the circuit
breaker is tripped after a certain temperature. Some typical settings for oil temperatures are as
follows:
Switch on fans: 60°C.
Alarm: 95°C.
Trip: 120°C.
Oil Temperature Indicator Thermometer: An oil thermometer, which is common with all oil-
filled transformers, can be considered as a partially effective protective device when equipped
with alarm contacts connected to give remote warning of abnormally high oil temperature. Its
location is such that it naturally monitors the hot-test fluid that exists in the transformer. The same
thermometer is often used to start fan motors on transformers equipped with automatic air blast to
increase the nameplate kVA rating.
Hot Spot Thermometer (Winding Temperature Device): The thermometer bulb is located in a
pocket near the winding. The bulb is surrounded by hot circulating oil. The bulb is also heated by
a small heater connected across CT secondary. Thereby the heat given to the bulb is a function of
load current as well as the temperature of oil near winding. The device is matched with heating
curve of the transformer winding.

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4.6 Limitations of differential protection.

Differential protection schemes for transformers are widely used due to their effectiveness in
detecting internal faults. However, they have several limitations:
a) Sensitivity to External Faults: Differential protection is primarily designed to detect internal
faults. It may not effectively respond to external faults unless the fault current is significantly high,
leading to potential failures in protection.
b) CT Saturation: Current transformers (CTs) used in differential protection can saturate during
high fault conditions, leading to incorrect differential current measurement. This can result in
delayed or missed tripping.
c) Phase Displacement: In transformers with multiple windings or those connected in different
configurations (e.g., delta or wye), phase angle differences can cause issues. Incorrect settings or
misalignment can prevent proper operation.
d) Harmonics and Inrush Current: During transformer inrush or when harmonics are present, the
differential relay may misinterpret these conditions as a fault, potentially causing unnecessary
tripping. Special algorithms may be required to distinguish between inrush and fault currents.
e) Relay Maloperation: If the differential relay is not calibrated correctly, it may either trip
unnecessarily (false positives) or fail to trip during a fault (false negatives).
f) CT Ratio Mismatches: If the CTs on the primary and secondary sides of the transformer have
different ratios or are incorrectly rated, it can lead to incorrect differential current calculations.
g) Ground Faults: Traditional differential protection may not effectively detect ground faults
unless additional ground fault protection is implemented.
h) Communication Failures: In some modern differential protection schemes that rely on
communication between relays (like in distance protection), any communication failure can
compromise the protection scheme.
i) Cost and Complexity: Differential protection systems can be more expensive and complex
compared to simpler protection schemes, which may not be justified in all applications.
j) Maintenance Requirements: Differential protection systems require regular testing and
maintenance to ensure proper operation, which can increase operational overhead.
4.7 Buchholz relay: Construction, operation.
Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformers for protection against
all kinds of faults. Named after its inventor, Buchholz, it is used to give an alarm in case of
incipient (i.e. slow-developing) faults in the transformer and to dis connect the transformer from
the supply in the event of severe internal faults. It is usually installed in the pipe connecting the
conservator to the main tank as shown in Fig. 4.7. It is a universal practice to use Buchholz relays
on all such oil immersed transformers having ratings in excess of 750 kVA.

Fig.4.7
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Construction.
Fig. 4.8 shows the constructional details of a Buchholz relay. It takes the form of a domed vessel
placed in the connecting pipe between the main tank and the conservator. The device has two
elements. The upper element consists of a mercury type switch attached to a float. The lower
element contains a mercury switch mounted on a hinged type flap located in the direct path of the
flow of oil from the transformer to the conservator. The upper element closes an alarm circuit
during incipient faults whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the circuit breaker in case of
severe internal faults.

Fig. 4.8
Operation.
The operation of Buchholz relay is as follows :
a) In case of incipient faults within the transformer, the heat due to fault causes the decomposition
of some transformer oil in the main tank. The products of decomposition contain more than 70% of
hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being light tries to go into the conservator and in the process gets
entrapped in the upper part of relay chamber. When a predetermined amount of gas gets
accumulated, it exerts sufficient pressure on the float to cause it to tilt and close the contacts of
mercury switch attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm.
b) If a serious fault occurs in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the main
tank. The oil in the main tank rushes towards the conservator via the Buchholz relay and in doing
so tilts the flap to close the contacts of mercury switch. This completes the trip circuit to open the
circuit breaker controlling the transformer.
 Advantages
(i) It is the simplest form of transformer protection.
(ii) It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than is possible with other forms of
protection.
 Disadvantages
(i) It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped with conservator tanks.
(ii) The device can detect only faults below oil level in the transformer. Therefore, separate
protection is needed for connecting cables.
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4.8 Motor: Abnormalities and Faults, Short circuit protection, Overload protection, Single
phase preventer.
 Abnormalities and Faults:
The Motor faults are mainly classified it into two main categories.
1. External faults: These are faults that originate from the power supply network or the load
connected to the motor. Some examples of external faults are:
a) Unbalanced supply voltages: This occurs when the three-phase voltages are not equal in
magnitude or phase angle. This can cause negative sequence currents in the motor, which produce
additional losses, heating, and torque pulsations.
b) Under-voltage: This occurs when the supply voltage drops below the rated value of the motor.
This can cause reduced torque, increased current, and overheating of the motor.
c) Reverse-phase sequence: This occurs when the order of the supply phases is reversed. This can
cause reverse rotation of the motor, which can damage the load or the motor itself.
d) Loss of synchronism: This occurs when a synchronous motor loses its magnetic lock with the
supply frequency. This can cause excessive slip, hunting, and instability of the motor.
2. Internal faults: These are faults that originate from the motor or the driven plant. Some
examples of internal faults are:
a) Bearing failure: This occurs when the bearings that support the motor shaft wear out or seize
due to friction, lubrication problems, or mechanical stress. This can cause noise, vibration, shaft
misalignment, and stalling of the motor.
b) Overheating: This occurs when the temperature of the motor exceeds its thermal limit due to
overloading, insufficient cooling, ambient conditions, or insulation breakdown. This can cause
deterioration of the insulation, winding damage, and reduced efficiency of the motor.
c) Winding failure: This occurs when the windings of the motor are short-circuited or open-circuit
due to insulation breakdown, mechanical stress, or external faults. This can cause sparks, smoke,
fire, and loss of torque in the motor.
d) Earth fault: This occurs when a phase conductor of the motor comes in contact with a grounded
part of the circuit or equipment. This can cause high fault currents, damage to the insulation and
equipment, and potential shock hazards.
 Short circuit protection:-
Short circuit protection of motor, connecting feeder and starter requires careful study. The over load
protective device (OLPD) and short circuit protective devices (SCPD) employed for motor
protection shall be well coordinated. The range of current between 1.5 to 10 times rated current is
generally termed as overload range. The motor switching device for AC-3 duty can successfully
make and break over-load currents in this range. Fault currents exceeding 10 times the rated current
can be considered as short circuit currents and these should be covered by short circuit protecting
devices (SCPD). The SCPD may be in one of the following forms:
a) HRC Fuse
b) Short circuit release opening the circuit breaker
c) Instantaneous high set overcurrent relay which trips the circuit-breaker.
By proper selection of short circuit protective devices, it is possible to prevent undue damage to
the motor, starter in the event of a short circuit. The back-up protection of circuit-breakers through
HRC fuses is now an accepted practice. It enables the use of economical circuit breakers of low
breaking capacity.

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 Overload protection:-
The overload protective devices can be grouped as:
a) Those which respond to motor current, eg. bimetal relays, Eutectic alloy relays, electromagnetic
relays, static relays. These relays opened the control circuit of the main contactor or close the trip
of circuit-breaker.
b) Those which respond to winding temperature, e.g., resistor devices embedded in slots,
thermostats, thermistors etc. Such devices are embedded in slots and serve to supervise the winding
temperature and trip the switching device.
The current sensing overload protecting devices can sense the following abnormal conditions:
a) Overloads, undervoltage
b) Single phasing
c) Locked rotor, stalling
d) Heavy starting
e) Continuous overloads
f) Heavy breaking.

However, the following conditions can be sensed only by embedded thermal devices:
a) Temperature rise due to higher ambient temperature.
b) Temperature rise due to failure of cooling.
c) Temperature rise due to other causes

The purpose of thermal-overload protection is to protect the motor insulation from excessive thermal
stresses. During full load, the temperature of motor winding reaches almost maximum permissible
unit (dependent on insulation class). During abnormal condition, the temperature exceeds the safe
limit and the life of insulation is reduced
The temperature of stator winding rises exponentially with time under moderate overloads.
The rate of temperature rise is determined by losses and thermal time constant of the stator. The
heat loss from motor to surrounding air depends upon ambient temperature, ventilation and design
aspects.
The time taken to reach limit of temperature rise and the shape of current versus time curve depends
on load on the machine. For any machine, the thermal withstand curves can be drawn for cold
condition and 'warm' condition. The 'replica' type thermal relay operates with a thermal facsimile of
the motor, i.e the characteristic of such relay is an approximate replica of motor heating curve.
The relay is compensated for ambient temperature variation so that it can protect the motor for both
cold start and hot start conditions
 Single phase preventer.
If one of the supply line is disconnected due to open circuit or improper contact in switch then still
the motor continues to run. The power is then supplied to the remaining windings. The current in
the other phases increases to about √3 times its normal value. This is called single phasing which
results in unbalanced stator currents. The component which is present in this unbalanced current
called negative sequence component causes magnetic flux rotating in opposite direction to the main
flux. This results in double frequency currents to induce in the rotor to cause its heating. Thus major
damage to motor may take place due to single phasing if proper precaution is not taken. As the phase
overcurrent relays react slowly, they cannot give the instantaneous protection against single phasing.
For small motors separate protection against single phasing is normally not provided as thermal
relays sense the increased current in remaining phases due to single phasing and provides the
sufficient protection.
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A separate single phasing protection circuit is required in case of large induction motors as even a
small unbalance can cause damage to motor winding and rotor. The single phasing preventer is
shown in the Fig 4.9.

Fig. 4.9
As shown in the figure, it consists of [Link] connected in each phase. The output of control circuit is
fed to the level detector which sense the magnitude of unbalance. Depending on this output from
the control circuit the tripping command to the starter or the circuit breaker is given when negative
sequence current exceeds its preset limit.
4.9 Busbar: Faults, busbar protection, differential and fault bus protection.
 Busbar: Faults
a) Insulator Failure: Support insulators can fail, leading to earth faults or flashovers.
b) Flashovers: Overvoltages, especially in polluted environments, can cause flashovers across
insulators.
c) Foreign Objects: Accidental intrusion of foreign objects can create faults.
d) Mechanical Damage: Earthquakes or other mechanical forces can damage the busbar or its
supports.
e) Operational Errors: Mistakes during maintenance or operation of switchgear can introduce
faults.
f) Equipment Failure: Failures in connected equipment, like circuit breakers, can also initiate
busbar faults.
g) Loose Connections or Deterioration: Failures can occur at joints or connections due to
loosening bolts or weld breaks.
h) Tracking: Carbon deposits on insulators can create a conductive path, causing tracking and
potential faults.

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 Busbar protection, differential and fault bus protection

Busbars in the generating stations and sub-stations form important link between the incoming and
outgoing circuits. If a fault occurs on a busbar, considerable damage and disruption of supply will
occur unless some form of quick-acting automatic protection is provided to isolate the faulty
busbar. The busbar zone, for the purpose of protection, includes not only the busbars themselves
but also the isolating switches, circuit breakers and the associated connections.
The two most com mainly used schemes for busbar protection are :
(i) Differential protection
(ii) Fault bus protection
Differential protection:-
The basic method for busbar protection is the differential scheme in which currents entering and
leaving the bus are totalised. During normal load condition, the sum of these currents is equal to
zero. When a fault occurs, the fault current upsets the balance and produces a differential current
to operate a relay.

Fig. 4.10
Fig. 4.10 shows the single line diagram of current differential scheme for a station busbar. The
busbar is fed by a generator and supplies load to two lines. The secondaries of current transformers
in the generator lead, in line 1 and in line 2 are all connected in parallel. The protective relay is
connected across this parallel connection. All CTs must be of the same ratio in the scheme regardless
of the capacities of the various circuits. Under normal load conditions or external fault conditions,
the sum of the currents entering the bus is equal to those leaving it and no current flows through the
relay. If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the currents entering the bus will no longer be
equal to those leaving it. The difference of these currents will flow through the relay and cause the
opening of the generator, circuit breaker and each of the line circuit breakers.
Fault Bus protection.
It is possible to design a station so that the faults that develop are mostly earth-faults. This can be
achieved by providing earthed metal barrier (known as fault bus) surrounding each conductor
throughout its entire length in the bus structure. With this arrangement, every fault that might occur
must involve a connection between a conductor and an earthed metal part. By directing the flow of
earth-fault current, it is possible to detect the faults and determine their location. This type of
protection is known as fault bus protection.
Fig. 4.11 show the schematic arrangement of fault bus protection. The metal supporting structure or
fault bus is earthed through a current transformer. A relay is connected across the secondary of this
CT. Under normal operating conditions, there is no current flow from fault bus to ground and the
relay remains inoperative. A fault involving a connection between a conductor and earthed

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supporting structure will result in current flow to ground through the fault bus, causing the relay to
operate. The operation of relay will trip all breakers connecting equipment to the bus.

Fig. 4.11
4.10 Transmission Line: Faults, Over current, Distance and Pilot wire protection
 Transmission Line: Faults
a) Open-Circuit Faults (Series Faults):
These occur when a conductor in the transmission line breaks or becomes disconnected, causing
an interruption in the current flow.

b) Short-Circuit Faults (Shunt Faults):

These happen when there's a low-resistance connection between conductors (phase-to-phase or
phase-to-ground), creating a path for excessive current flow.

c) Symmetrical Faults:
These faults affect all three phases of the transmission line equally. Examples include line-to-line-
to-line (LLL) and line-to-line-to-line-to-ground (LLLG) faults.

d) Asymmetrical Faults:
These faults affect the phases of the transmission line differently. Common types include single
line-to-ground (SLG), line-to-line (LL), and line-to-line-to-ground (LLG) faults.

 Time-Graded Overcurrent Protection

In this scheme of overcurrent protection, time discrimination is incorporated. In other words, the
time setting of relays is so graded that in the event of fault, the smallest possible part of the system
is isolated. We shall discuss a few important cases.
1. Radial feeder. The main characteristic of a radial system is that power can flow only in one
direction, from generator or supply end to the load. It has the disadvantage that continuity of
supply cannot be maintained at the receiving end in the event of fault. Time-graded protection of a
radial feeder can be achieved by using (i) definite time relays and (ii) inverse time relays.
(i) Using definite time relays. Fig. 4.12 shows the overcurrent protection of a radial feeder by
definite time relays. The time of operation of each relay is fixed and is independent of the operating
current. Thus relay D has an operating time of 0·5 second while for other relays, time delay is
successively increased by 0·5 second. If a fault occurs in the section DE, it will be cleared in 0·5
second by the relay and circuit breaker at D because all other relays have higher operating time. In

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this way only section DE of the system will be isolated. If the relay at D fails to trip, the relay at C
will operate after a time delay of 0·5 second i.e. after 1 second from the occurrence of fault.

Fig. 4.12
ii) Using inverse time relays. Fig. 4.13 shows overcurrent protection of a radial feeder using inverse
time relays in which operating time is inversely proportional to the operating current. With this
arrangement, the farther the circuit breaker from the generating station, the shorter is its relay
operating time.
The three relays at A, B and C are assumed to have inverse-time characteristics. A fault in section
BC will give relay times which will allow breaker at B to trip out before the breaker at A.

Fig. 4.13
2. Parallel feeders. Where continu ity of supply is particularly necessary, two parallel feeders may
be installed. If a fault occurs on one feeder, it can be disconnected from the system and continuity
of supply can be maintained from the other feeder. The parallel feeders cannot* be protected by
non-directional overcurrent relays only. It is necessary to use directional relays also and to grade the
time setting of relays for selective trippings.

Fig. 4.14

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Fig. 4.14 shows the system where two feeders are connected in parallel between the generating
station and the sub-station. The protection of this system requires that
a) each feeder has a non-directional overcurrent relay at the generator end. These relays should have
inverse-time characteristic.
b) each feeder has a reverse power or directional relay at the sub-station end. These relays should
be instantaneous type and operate only when power flows in the reverse direction i.e. in the direction
of arrow at P and Q.
3. Ring main system. In this system, various power stations or sub-stations are intercon nected by
alternate routes, thus forming a closed ring. In case of damage to any section of the ring, that
section may be disconnected for repairs, and power will be supplied from both ends of the ring,
thereby maintaining continuity of supply.

Fig. 4.15
Fig. 4.15 shows the single line diagram of a typical ring main system consisting of one generator
G supplying four sub-stations S1, S2, S3 and S4. In this arrangement, power can flow in both
directions under fault conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to grade in both directions round the
ring and also to use directional relays.
 Distance Protection
Both time-graded and pilot-wire system are not suitable for the protection of very long high voltage
transmission lines. The former gives an unduly long time delay in fault clearance at the generating
station end when there are more than four or five sections and the pilot-wire system becomes too
expensive owing to the greater length of pilot wires required. This has led to the development of
distance protection in which the action of relay depends upon the distance (or impedance) between
the point where the relay is installed and the point of fault. This system provides discrimination
protection without employing pilot wires.

Fig. 4.16
Fig. 4.16 shows a simple system consisting of lines in series such that power can flow only from
left to right. The relays at A, B and C are set to operate for impedance less than Z1, Z2 and Z3
respectively. Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault impedance at power
station and sub-station A and B will be Z1 + Z and Z respectively. It is clear that for the portion
shown, only relay at B will operate. Similarly, if a fault occurs within section AB, then only relay
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at A will operate. In this manner, instantaneous protection can be obtained for all conditions of
operation.
In actual practice, it is not possible to obtain instantaneous protection for complete length of the line
due to inaccuracies in the relay elements and instrument transformers. Thus the relay at A [See Fig.
4.16] would not be very reliable in distinguishing between a fault at 99% of the distance AB and the
one at 101% of distance AB. This difficulty is overcome by using ‘three-zone’ distance protection
shown in Fig. 4.17.

Fig. 4.17
In this scheme of protection, three distance elements are used at each terminal. The zone 1 element
covers first 90% of the line and is arranged to trip instantaneously for faults in this portion. The zone
2 element trips for faults in the remaining 10% of the line and for faults in the next line section, but
a time delay is introduced to prevent the line from being tripped if the fault is in the next section.
The zone 3 element provides back-up protection in the event a fault in the next section is not cleared
by its breaker.
 Differential Pilot-Wire Protection
The differential pilot-wire protection is based on the principle that under normal conditions, the
current entering one end of a line is equal to that leaving the other end. As soon as a fault occurs
between the two ends, this condition no longer holds and the difference of incoming and outgoing
currents is arranged to flow through a relay which operates the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty
line. There are several differential protection schemes in use for the lines. However, only the
following two schemes will be discussed :
1. Merz-Price voltage balance system
2. Translay scheme
1. Merz-Price voltage balance system. Fig. 4.18 shows the single line diagram of Merz Price
voltage balance system for the protection of a 3-phase line. Identical current transformers are placed
in each phase at both ends of the line. The pair of CTs in each line is connected in series with a relay
in such a way that under normal conditions, their secondary voltages are equal and in opposition i.e.
they balance each other.

Fig. 4.18
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Advantages
a) This system can be used for ring mains as well as parallel feeders.
b) This system provides instantaneous protection for ground faults. This decreases the possi bility
of these faults involving other phases.
c) This system provides instantaneous relaying which reduces the amount of damage to over head
conductors resulting from arcing faults.
Disadvantages
a) Accurate matching of current transformers is very essential.
b) If there is a break in the pilot-wire circuit, the system will not operate.
c) This system is very expensive owing to the greater length of pilot wires required.
d) In case of long lines, charging current due to pilot-wire capacitance effects may be sufficient to
cause relay operation even under normal conditions.
e) This system cannot be used for line voltages beyond 33 kV because of constructional difficulties
in matching the current transformers.
2. Translay scheme
The Translay scheme for the protection of a 3-phase line is shown in Fig. 4.19. The relays used in
the scheme are essentially overcurrent induction type relays. Each relay has two electromagnetic
elements. The upper element carries a winding (11 or 11 a) which is energised as a summation
transformer from the secondaries of the line CTs connected in the phases of the line to be protected.
The upper element also carries a secondary winding (12 or 12 a) which is connected is series with
the operating winding (13 or 13 a) on the lower magnet. The secondary windings 12, 12 a and
operating windings 13, 13 a are connected in series in such a way that voltages induced in them
oppose each other.

Fig. 4.19
Operation.
When the feeder is sound, the currents at its two ends are equal so that the secondary currents in
both sets of CTs are equal. Consequently, the currents flowing in the relay primary wind ing 11 and
11 a will be equal and they will induce equal voltages in the secondary windings 12 and 12a. Since
these windings are connected in opposition, no current flows in them or in the operating windings
13 and 13a. In the event of a fault on the protected line, the line current at one end must carry a
greater current than that at the other end. The result is that voltages induced in the secondary

Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education 60

Switchgear & Protection (SGP) Course Code: 315334

windings 12 and 12 a will be different and the current will flow through the operating coils 13, 13a
and the pilot circuit. Under these conditions, both upper and lower elements of each relay are
energised and a forward torque acts on the each relay disc. The operation of the relays will open the
circuit breakers at both ends of the line.
Advantages
a) The system is economical as only two pilot wires are required for the protection of a 3-phase
line.
b) Current transformers of normal design can be used.
c) The pilot wire capacitance currents do not affect the operation of relays.
Questions:
1. State four abnormalities that taking place in case of motors.
2. Explain differential protection scheme for busbars with neat sketch.
3. Explain with neat sketch, the Pilot wire protection scheme applied to transmission line.
4. Describe the construction and Operation of Buchholz relay with neat labeled diagram.
5. Explain the working of single phasing preventer with neat diagram.
6. Explain the “Differential Protection Scheme” used for alternators with neat labeled diagram.
7. State any four faults that may occur in alternator
8. With neat line diagram, state the working of over current and earth fault protection of alternator.
9. With the help of neat sketch, state the operation of distance protection scheme for the
transmission line.
10. Explain reverse power protection of 3φ alternator.
Reference Book:
1. Principles of Power System, Mehta V. K ; Rohit Mehta, [Link] and Co., New Delhi., 2016
ISBN: 978-93-5501-077-3
2. Switchgear and Protection, [Link] S., Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2015 ISBN: 978-93-
87394-72-8
3. Switchgear and Protection, Gupta. J. B., S. K. Kataria and Sons, New Delhi, 2015ISBN: 978-
93-5014-372-8.
Website:-
1. [Link]
2. [Link]

Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education 61

Switchgear & Protection (SGP) Course Code: 315334

[Link]

Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education 1

D.C. MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Course Code: 314322

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