IGCSE Biology

Topic Notes &

Revision Questions

Fourth Form

Name: _________________________________
Form: _______________
Teacher: _____________

Introduction Page 1
Designing experiments
When designing experiments our aim is to have a valid method and data. This means that
it will answer the question being asked.

To do this we need to design an experiment where one variable (condition) changes and
its effect on another is measured. Everything else needs to be kept the same, otherwise
we don't know what is causing the change in what we are measuring. You may have called
this a fair test.

To start designing your experiment you need to identify:

Independent variable - what you are deliberately changing, e.g. temperature (named in
the question)

Dependent variable - what you are measuring, e.g. a rate of a reaction (also named in the
question).

You may need to work out what data to collect as you cannot count or measure it directly.
For example, for rate of photosynthesis we often count the number of bubbles released in
one minute. This measures one of the products of photosynthesis.

Control variables - the other factors which might affect the dependent variable. These
should include both biological factors (e.g. species, age, fitness) and non-living factors (e.g.
concentrations of solutions, temperature, and pH).

For all of these variables, add as much detail as possible, e.g. the range and intervals of the
independent variable and values for the control variables.

We also need to plan to repeat the experiment for each value of the independent
variable. We should repeat as many times as possible - plan for at least 5 repeats (10 for
ecology). If our results are similar for a given condition, and we get the same pattern each
time, we say they show a high precision. This means that the data and conclusions are
reliable - we can assume that these results would occur every time.

Control experiments:
In Biology we often want to show that it is the organism causing the change we are
measuring. To do this we carry out a control experiment - the same set up, but with the
organism removed (or a dead organism instead of a living one). If we don't see a change in
that experiment, we know that our other measurements are due to the living organism.
Alternatively we might repeat the experiment, but with "normal conditions" (nothing
removed or added) so that we can make comparisons and see the effect of the changes
we have made.

Introduction Page 2
Making measurements
We want our measurements to be
accurate - as close to the true (real) value as
possible. There are three ways to achieve
this:

Choosing equipment:
Pick the apparatus with a better resolution.
This means the scale has smaller divisions,
e.g. 0.5°C rather than 1°C.
Reliability:
Take repeated measurements for each condition or value of the independent variable,
ideally 5 or more. This allows us to check that results are precise (similar), calculate
means and to identify and ignore anomalous results (ones which don't fit).

Errors:
Errors cause anomalous results, reducing the precision and accuracy of our data. They are
to do with the equipment and experimental design; they are not mistakes made by
students.

There are uncertainties in measurements due to the resolution of the equipment. For
example, if I measure a temperature as 34°C, it could actually be any value between 33.5°
C and 34.5°C.

Errors can also be caused by incorrect use of equipment, for example failing to calibrate a
piece of apparatus. Taring (zeroing) a balance is an example of calibration - it ensures all
readings are taking in comparison to the same starting point. Another example is parallax
error, which occurs if you do not read volumes with the measuring cylinder (or other
apparatus) at eye level.

The final source of error are weaknesses in the experimental design. A good example
would be burning food to determine the energy content. The diagram should give you the
hint that in the experiment a lot of heat energy is radiated into the surroundings, rather
than the water. This is a source of error which will mean that our results are very
inaccurate.

Introduction Page 3
 Recording data - tables
Tables should be organised so that, from left to right, you have:
 independent variable in the first column,
 measurements of the dependent variable,
 any calculations relating to the independent variable.

The results of calculations, including means, should be recorded with the

lowest number of significant figures used to record measurements.

For example, we couldn't have any decimal places in the table below, as
the measurements were all in centimetres.

Units should be in column headings

If the independent variable is numerical,

it (and all the data associated with it)
should be recorded in sequence - i.e. Data is recorded with a
lowest to highest consistent number of
decimal places

Introduction Page 4
Presenting data - graphs

Look at the graph below. It shows the key features you should check each time:

Introduction Page 5
Environmental interactions – topic content
By the end of this topic you will have learnt to: Completed class Retrieval Revision
and home work practice questions
completed completed

4.1 understand the terms population, community, habitat

and ecosystem
4.2 practical: investigate the population size of an organism
in two different areas using quadrats
4.5 understand how abiotic and biotic factors affect the
population size and distribution of organisms
4.6 understand the names given to different trophic levels,
including producers, primary, secondary and tertiary
consumers and decomposers
4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs,
pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of
energy transfer
4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along
a food chain
4.9 understand why only about 10% of energy is transferred
from one trophic level to the next
4.10 describe the stages in the carbon cycle, including
respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion
4.13 understand that water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide, methane and CFCs are greenhouse gases
4.14 understand how human activities contribute to
greenhouse gases
4.15 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases
results in an enhanced greenhouse effect and that this may
lead to global warming and its consequences
4.11B describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including
the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers,
nitrifying bacteria and denitrifying bacteria (specific names
of bacteria are not required)

Environmental Interactions Page 1

An introduction to ecology

Ecology is the study of ecosystems.

An ecosystem is an easily described system or area where organisms interact with their physical
environment. To understand this, think about some key examples…

All ecosystems include these components:

Producers: organisms which make their own food (e.g. photosynthesising plants)

Consumers: organisms which eat other living things (e.g. animals)

Decomposers: organisms which secrete digestive enzymes to decay (breakdown) dead organic
matter to obtain their food; they help to recycle nutrients

A physical environment: all the non-living (abiotic) factors which affect growth and survival of
living things. These include temperature, carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations, minerals
in the soil…

Each ecosystem contains a range of different habitats - these are the places where specific
organisms live.

In the pond different habitats could include:

shallow water, deep water, the soil, the
centre of a clump of pondweed. Each of
these locations will provide the ideal
conditions for one or several species.

Environmental Interactions Page 2

Measuring the living organisms in an ecosystem

When we study organisms in ecology we are interested in their population

A population is the total number of individuals of one species in a particular habitat at a

particular time.

Ecologists might want to measure the size of a population in a habitat. To do this they use a
quadrat.

This is a quadrat. Most of the time we use a 50cm x

50cm square; the area is 0.25m2.

To measure a population we:

• Place it on the ground
• Count the number of individuals of our chosen
species inside the square.

Some individuals may be on the edge, so they are half in and half out of the quadrat. To make
data consistent count those on the top and left edges only.

If it is difficult to count individuals for your chosen species (e.g. grass) you can estimate the
percentage of the quadrat area covered by the species. Some quadrats are divided into grids to
help you to do this.

To find out the population of a species in a habitat you would:

1. Calculate the area of the habitat
2. Measure the number of individuals in one quadrat and repeat many times to check our
result is reliable (at least 10 quadrats are needed)
3. Calculate the average number of individuals in a quadrat
4. Calculate how many quadrats fit into the total area
5. Multiply the result from step 4 by the result from step 3

We use random sampling to make sure our data is valid - this means we are avoiding choosing
areas which may be interesting, as this would bias our result.

To take a random sample (see the diagram overleaf):

1. Lay out two tape measures at right angles to make a 10m by 10m set of axes. Generate
pairs of random numbers between 0 and 10 - these are coordinates
2. Use the coordinates to place your quadrat

Environmental Interactions Page 3

Sampling in an ecosystem

Habitats are not uniform; there will be differences in abiotic conditions such as light intensity
or one area may be trampled. These differences could affect the distribution of our
population.

We can investigate this in two ways:

1. Pick two contrasting areas and set up a grid in each. Use random sampling to take
repeated measurements with a quadrat and compare the average results.
2. Use a transect. A transect is a line across a habitat, which is placed to pass through a
range of abiotic conditions (e.g. from light to shade, or across a path). A quadrat is
placed at regular intervals along the transect and used to measure the number or %
cover of the species.

Environmental Interactions Page 4

PPQ - practical

PPQ1: The passage describes the study of organisms and their ecosystems.
Complete the passage by writing a suitable word in each of the spaces. (8)
Ecology is the study of the interaction of the organisms in an ecosystem with their
……………………………….. This is made up of biotic or living factors and abiotic or non–living
factors.

In an ecosystem, a group of organisms of the same species living in one place is a

………………………………... Different groups of species living in the same place or habitat is
called a ………………………………..

To study the number and distribution of plants in an area, a wooden or metal frame is
used. This is called a ………………………………... To compare numbers of organisms in two
areas several frames need to be placed at ……………………………….. places in each area.

The numbers in each frame are combined and then divided by the total number of
frames. This is done to calculate the ……………………………….. for each area. By using
several frames we improve the ……………………………….. of the data and make it easier to
detect any ……………………………….. results.

PPQ2: Three students were asked to estimate the population size of a plant species in an area by using
a quadrat.
The diagram shows where each student placed their quadrat in the area.

1. (i) Which student would obtain the most reliable estimate?

Give reasons for your answer. (2)

(ii) State what is meant by the term population. (1)

Environmental Interactions Page 5

PPQ – practical
1. Five other students investigated the distribution of grass in the goal area of a football pitch.

They placed a small quadrat at the goal line and then at one meter intervals in a straight line
away from the goal line. The diagram shows their method.

The quadrat was 10 cm by 10 cm and was made from clear plastic. It was marked into 100 squares of
1 cm × 1 cm. If grass could be seen in 10 of the squares, the percentage cover would get a score of
10%.

The table shows the results obtained by the five students.

1. One of the averages of the results has been calculated ignoring an anomalous result.

Which student obtained the anomalous result? (1)

2. The diagram shows a quadrat used by one of the students, and the number of 1cm squares
where grass can be seen.

Which student obtained the results shown in this quadrat? (1)

(Total for question = 5 marks)

Environmental Interactions Page 6

PPQ - ecology

1. Limpets are animals that live on rocks found by the sea. They are attached to the rocks and do not
move very much. A picture of a limpet attached to a rock is shown below.

(a) A quadrat can be used to sample the population size of an organism.

(i) What is a quadrat? (1)
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(ii) How should you choose places to sample with the quadrat, in order to get valid results?
..................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................(1)
(b) Design an investigation to find out if distance from the sea affects the population size of
limpets found on the rocks.
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(Total 8 marks)

Environmental Interactions Page 7

Feeding relationships

A population of a species does not exist in isolation. It is part of a community. In ecology, a

community is formed of the populations of all the species present in an ecosystem at a
particular time.

The species in a community are continuously interacting with each other and with the
physical environment. They do this in a number of ways:
• Feeding on each other - this allows nutrients to be recycled.
• Competition for resources (e.g. food, mates, nesting sites, light, mineral ions).
• Using abiotic resources - e.g. absorbing mineral ions from the soil and using water.

We can show feeing relationships in an ecosystem using food chains. These are quite simple,
but this helps us to make measurements (like counting the number of organisms.

The arrows mean "is eaten by". They show the direction that energy and biomass moves,
from the species that is eaten to the animal that eats it.

The stages in a food chain (or web) are called the trophic levels.

We can label the organisms in a food chain (or web) as producers and consumers. The first
animal is the primary consumer, the second the secondary consumer and then the tertiary
consumer.

Decomposers, you will remember, are vital for recycling nutrients; however, they are rarely
drawn in food chains and webs.

Environmental Interactions Page 8

Food webs and pyramids
A food web is more complex as it
shows links between many species.
Food webs are particularly useful for
understanding the links between the
species in a community.

For example, if the Leopard seals

were all removed from the
environment, we can use a food web
to predict what will happen.

In this case fish, seagull and penguin populations could all increase, as fewer will be eaten.
However, the killer whale might eat more penguins, so the penguin population might stay the
same.

We can use ecological pyramids

to represent the relative amounts
of organisms at each trophic
level. They are always drawn to
scale

Pyramids of number: these are

drawn to show the number of
each organism counted in the
ecosystem. They can be odd
shapes due to the different
masses of organisms.

Pyramids of biomass: these are drawn to show the total mass of the organisms in each trophic
level (i.e. the mass of an individual x the number of individuals). These are a more accurate way
of looking at the relative amounts of organisms.

Environmental Interactions Page 9

Transfer of energy

Biologists have ways of estimating the amount of energy available in a particular ecosystem at each
trophic level. You will remember that the units for energy in the food we eat are kilojoules.

Biologists express the energy available at a trophic level in a particular area as kilojoules per square
metre per year (kJ / m2/ year).

For example, an ecologist estimate the following amounts of energy being available at
various trophic levels of a grassland food chain:

Grass  Rabbits  Fox

• Light energy from sun 200,000 kJ/m2/year
• Energy in grass 2000 kJ/m2/year
• Energy in rabbits 175 kJ/m2/year
• Energy in foxes 18 kJ/m2/year

Pyramids of energy: these are drawn to show the total energy available in each trophic level per
square metre per year. There should be a decrease in energy between each trophic level.

Environmental Interactions Page 10

Energy efficiency

The least efficient transfer is from light energy to the producer

This is because:

• Some light will miss the plant or miss the plant’s chloroplasts.
• Some light will be reflected by the cuticle
• Some light has the wrong wavelength to be absorbed by chlorophyll

Approximately 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next

This is because:

• Some parts of the organisms are not eaten (so the biological molecules are not available for
respiration)
• Some parts are not digested and absorbed - they are egested as faeces (so the biological
molecules are not available for respiration)
• Some materials are respired to release energy - the energy is used for:
○ Muscle contraction - e.g. movement and breathing
○ Maintaining a constant body temperature (in mammals and birds)
○ Synthesising biological molecules (including excretory products)
○ Movement of molecules (active transport)
○ Cell division

Environmental Interactions Page 11

Carbon Cycle

When plants photosynthesise, carbon atoms from carbon dioxide become part of glucose molecules
(which is stored as starch) in the plant. What happens to the carbon in this glucose?

a) Some of the glucose will be broken down by the plant in respiration. The carbon in the glucose
becomes part of the carbon dioxide molecule again, and is released back into the air.

b) Some of the carbon compounds in the plant will be eaten by animals. The animals respire,
releasing some of it back into the air as carbon dioxide.

c) When the plant or animal dies, decomposers (bacteria and fungi) will feed on them. The carbon
becomes part of the decomposers' bodies. When they respire they release carbon dioxide into the
air again.

d) Fossilisation occurs when living things do not decay fully when they die due to the conditions in
the soil. Fossil fuels are then formed over millions of years by a process called Locking in. These
include coal, oil, natural gas and peat.

e) When fossil fuels are burnt (combustion), carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

Environmental Interactions Page 12

 Nitrogen Cycle

Bacteria and fungi in the soil are called the decomposers because they break down the dead remains and
release the chemicals for the plants to use again. Feeding and assimilation pass nitrogen – for example in
protein molecules – along food chains.

1. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil and roots of legume plants absorb nitrogen and reduce it to
make ammonia. This process is called nitrogen fixation.

2. The ammonia is converted to nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. This process is called
nitrification.

3. Plant roots can only absorb the nitrates. They are combined with carbohydrates (from
photosynthesis) to form amino acids which are then made into proteins, and nucleotides which are
joined to make DNA and RNA.

4. Animals eat plants. They digest the proteins and DNA, absorbing the small soluble molecules
(amino acids and nucleotides). These are used by the animal to synthesise (make) new proteins and
DNA (assimilation).

5. When a plant or animal dies its tissues are decomposed by bacteria and fungi (saprotrophic
feeding).

6. Molecules containing nitrogen such as proteins are broken down by the bacteria and fungi and
ammonia is released into the soil.

7. Some nitrates are converted into N2 by Denitrifying bacteria. This process is called denitrification.

Environmental Interactions Page 13

Bacteria in nitrogen cycle

Name of Process Description Bacteria involved

Decomposition Protein in dead plants and animals is broken down. Decomposing bacteria
Ammonia is released into the soil
Nitrification Ammonia is converted to nitrites, and nitrites are Nitrifying bacteria
converted into nitrates
Denitrification Nitrates are converted to nitrogen gas Denitrifying bacteria
(denitrification reduces the amount of nitrate in the
soil and therefore makes the soil less fertile).
Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia in bacteria Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found
which is used to make proteins, when the bacteria in soil and in root nodules of
die their proteins decompose, releasing ammonia plants
back into the soil

Some nitrogen fixing bacteria live in small structures - nodules - on the roots of legume plants. This
is a mutualistic relationship - the bacteria receive glucose from the plant, while the plant absorbs
ammonia from the bacteria in the nodule.

When these bacteria decompose they make the soil much more fertile may releasing ammonia
which can be converted into nitrates. This is why farmers may rotate the crops they grow in each
field. They could grow clover but instead they often grow leguminous plants which they can then
sell such as peas.

Environmental Interactions Page 14

PPQ - cycles

Q1.
The diagram shows the nitrogen cycle with four different stages labelled A, B, C and D.

(a) Name the processes A, B, C and D. (4)

A ........................................................................................................................................
B ........................................................................................................................................
C ........................................................................................................................................
D ........................................................................................................................................

(b) Name two different groups of organisms that act as decomposers. (2)
1 ........................................................................................................................................
2 ........................................................................................................................................

(c) The nitrogen in a nitrate ion in the soil can become the nitrogen in a protein molecule in an animal.
Explain how this happens. (4)
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Environmental Interactions Page 15

PPQ - cycles
Q1.
The diagram shows the carbon cycle. The letters A to F represent different processes in the carbon cycle.

(a) Complete the table by naming the process represented by each letter. The first one has been done
for you.
(5)

(b) (i) Some of the carbon in plants is found in the form of carbohydrates.
Name two carbohydrates found in plants.
(2)
1 ........................................................................................................................................

2 ........................................................................................................................................

(ii) The molecule that genes are made from contains carbon.
Name this molecule.
(1)
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Environmental Interactions Page 16

The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

The sun emits radiation, which travels through space. Some is reflected by the earth's atmosphere,
but some passes through and is absorbed by the earth's surface. This warms the earth, which then
emits infra-red (IR) radiation.

Some IR radiation passes through the atmosphere into space, but some gases in the atmosphere
absorb the IR radiation, preventing it from escaping back into space. This leads to more energy being
held by the atmosphere, heating it. Gases which cause this effect are water vapour, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxides and CFCs.

Greenhouses (glasshouses) work on a similar principle and so this effect was dubbed the ‘greenhouse
effect’. The greenhouse effect is essential for life on Earth - without it the entire planet would be
frozen.

Records from ice cores and fossilised tree rings suggest that the Earth has been through a great
number of cycles of global warming and cooling. The controversy surrounding global warming
currently revolves around the question of whether or not human activity is contributing to this natural
and cyclical effect.

Because the greenhouse effect is a natural effect of gases in the atmosphere, any extra greenhouse
effect caused by human activity is called the enhanced greenhouse effect.

It is difficult to measure the extent to which human activity increases the concentration of water
vapour in the atmosphere. At any rate, this varies considerably season by season. However, it is clear
that human activity does increase the concentrations of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Environmental Interactions Page 17

Summary table of greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas Human activity which acts as a source

CO2 • Burning fossil fuels

• Slash and burn forest clearance

Methane • Generated by bacteria in anaerobic (low oxygen) conditions, for
example;

 Ruminants such as cattle produce large volumes of methane

from the anaerobic activity of bacteria in their gut. This largely
comes out from their mouths.

 Bacteria in waterlogged paddy fields for rice cultivation give off

methane.

Nitrous oxides • Burning fossil fuels

CFCs • Until the 1990’s CFCs were used as a solvent for aerosols such as
deodorants. They were also used in fridges and freezers.

• CFCs were also blamed for the hole in the ozone layer. Do not
confuse this effect with the greenhouse effect!

Environmental Interactions Page 18

 The potential effects of global warming
 Melting of polar ice caps. If ice shelves over land melt, such as over Greenland and Antarctica, this will
lead to sea level rises, causing flooding in coastal regions worldwide.

 Destruction of habitats. For example, grassland may turn to desert (desertification), leading to the loss
of habitat for resident species. This could lead to the extinction of species.

 Drought and Desertification can lead to crop failure and therefore to food shortages and famines.

 Increased extreme weather events. Extreme weather event such as hurricanes could become more
frequent as there is more energy present in weather systems due to global warming.

 Spread of disease. As the planet warms it will be possible for disease carrying organisms, such as
mosquitos, to survive in a wider range of countries. This means diseases such as malaria and dengue
fever are likely to become more common.

 Change in crops. As areas warm it will become possible to grow different crops (e.g. olives and grapes
in Southern England). This will be beneficial to some countries.

 Increase in heat related illness and deaths. In recent years there have been increases in death rates in
the elderly associated with heat waves. This may become more common

Environmental Interactions Page 19

 PPQ – greenhouse gases

1. The data show the mean temperature in central England during thirteen periods of 25 years.
The midpoint of each period is shown.

(a) Plot the data on the grid, using straight lines to join the points.
(6)

Environmental Interactions Page 20

PPQ – greenhouse gases

(b) Between which two neighbouring periods was the change in mean temperature
the greatest?
(1)
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

(c) Some scientists think that the release of greenhouse gases has contributed to these
changes in temperature.
(i) Name a greenhouse gas.
(1)
..............................................................................................................................................

(ii) What is meant by the term greenhouse gas?

(1)
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(iii) Suggest how human activities could be responsible for the change in temperature
between 1970 and 1995.
(3)
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(Total for question = 12 marks)

Environmental Interactions Page 21

Reproduction and Growth – topic content
By the end of this topic you will have learnt to: Completed class Retrieval Revision
and home work practice questions
completed completed

3.28 understand how division of a diploid cell by mitosis

produces two cells that contain identical sets of
chromosomes
3.29 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair,
cloning and asexual reproduction
3.30 understand how division of a cell by meiosis produces
four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and
that this results in the formation of genetically different
haploid gametes
3.31 understand how random fertilisation produces genetic
variation of offspring
3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a
male and female gamete to produce a zygote that
undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo
3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual
reproduction
3.32 know that in human cells the diploid number of
chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23
3.3 describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a
wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for
pollination
3.7 understand that plants can reproduce asexually by
natural methods (illustrated by runners) and by artificial
methods (illustrated by cuttings)
3.4 understand that the growth of the pollen tube followed
by fertilisation leads to seed and fruit formation
3.5 practical: investigate the conditions needed for seed
germination
3.6 understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves
until the seedling can carry out photosynthesis
3.8 understand how the structure of the male and female
reproductive systems are adapted for their functions
3.11 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the
developing embryo
3.12 understand how the developing embryo is protected
by amniotic fluid
3.13 understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in
the development of secondary sexual characteristics
3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in
the menstrual cycle
3.10B understand the roles of FSH and LH in the menstrual
cycle

Reproduction and Growth Page 1

Cell Division Overview
Growth and reproduction (sexual and asexual) require cell division. There are two types of
cell division.

Before a cell divides the chromosomes replicate, making an exact copy of themselves. This
doubles the amount of DNA in the cell.

Mitosis - This produces genetically identical daughter cells. These cells are diploid –
they have one pair of each chromosome in each nucleus. Human diploid cells have 23
pairs of chromosomes (46 in total). Mitosis is used for growth, repair and asexual
reproduction.

Meiosis - This produces haploid gametes (sperm, eggs, pollen) which are not
genetically identical. Human haploid cells have 23 chromosomes in total (unpaired).
Meiosis is only used to produce gametes for sexual reproduction.

A consequence of meiosis is that every gamete produced is genetically different – it carries

different alleles to every other gamete.

It is random which sperm / pollen grain fertilises an egg. Therefore variation in offspring is
produced by;
i. Genetic variation in gamete cells produced by meiosis
ii. Random fertilisation of ova (egg cells) by male gametes

Mitosis Meiosis
Differences in the processes:
•Produces genetically identical daughter cells • Produces genetically non-identical
•Produces two cells daughter cells
•Involves one division •Produces four cells
•Produces diploid cells in humans •Involves two cell divisions
•Keeps the same chromosome number •Produces haploid cells in humans
•Halves the number of chromosomes
Differences in their roles:
•Generates all adult cells except gametes (growth •Only used to produce gametes
& repair) •Only occurs in ovary and testis
•occurs throughout the human body •Only occurs in ovary and anther
•Occurs throughout a plant •Used for sexual reproduction
•Used for asexual reproduction (cloning)

Reproduction and Growth Page 2

Cell Division Mitosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a diploid body cell copies itself and finally divides into
two identical diploid daughter cells. The daughter cells are clones of each other. Every base pair
of their DNA is identical.

Only two pairs of chromosomes are shown in the diagrams below. There are 23 pairs of
chromosomes in a diploid human body cell.

1. The cell grows.

2. The DNA replicates (is copied) to form two copies of each chromosome. These copies
(chromatids) are joined together at a single point (the centromere).
3. The nuclear membrane breaks down. The chromosomes line up across the centre of the
cell, attached to special spindle fibres
4. The chromatids (copies of chromosomes) are pulled apart and move to opposite ends of
the cell.
5. The cytoplasm and cell membrane divides to form two identical cells.

Reproduction and Growth Page 3

Cell Division Meiosis

Meiosis is the type of cell division which gives rise to cells that are genetically different.
• Meiosis takes place in the sex organs (e.g. the testes and ovaries of mammals)
• The cells formed are gametes (sperm and egg cells in mammals). Gametes are different from other
cells because they have half the normal number of chromosomes (they are haploid).

Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is a reduction
division – the chromosome number is halved from diploid
As a result of meiosis and fertilisation, the maternal and paternal chromosomes meet in
different combinations in the zygotes. Consequently, the offspring will differ from their parents
and from each other in a variety of ways:

1. The parent cell grows.

2. The DNA replicates (is copied) to form two copies of each chromosome. These copies
(chromatids) are joined together at a single point (the centromere).

3. The nuclear membrane breaks down. The homologous pairs of chromosomes join together.

4. The homologous pairs of chromosomes exchange sections of DNA. They then attach to the
spindle fibres in pairs, at the centre of the cell.

5. The homologous pairs of chromosomes are pulled apart and move to opposite ends of the
cell. The cell divides.

6. The chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell, attached to the spindle fibres. The
chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell. Each cell divides again.

Reproduction and Growth Page 4

PPQ - Cell Division
Q1.
The diagram shows some of the cell divisions that occur during human reproduction.

(a) (i) Name the type of cell division that produces cell D from cell B.

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Which organ in the male body produces cell C from cell A?

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) (i) Cells A and B each contain 46 chromosomes.

How many chromosomes would there be in the nucleus of cell C?

(1)

(ii) Why is it important that cell C has this number of chromosomes?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

Reproduction and Growth Page 5

Q2.
The table shows the number of chromosomes found in each body cell of some different
organisms.

Animal Plants
s
Species Number of chromosomes in each Species Number of chromosomes in each
body cell body cell
Fruit fly 8 Tomato 24
Goat 60 Potato 44
Human 46 Rice 24

(a) Nearly every organism on earth has an even number of chromosomes in its body cells.

Suggest why.
(1)

(b) Gametes are made in the testes by meiosis.

(i) Look at the diagrams.

Which diagram, A, B, C or D, represents how cell division by meiosis produces gametes in the
testes?
(1)

(ii) How many chromosomes will each goat gamete contain?

(1)

(c) Body cells divide by mitosis.

(i) Why is the ability of body cells to divide important?

(1)

(ii) When a body cell of a potato plant divides, how many chromosomes will each of the
new cells contain?
(1)
(Total 5 marks)

Reproduction and Growth Page 6

Fertilisation
Sperm Egg Cell

Sperm (on the left above) have a tail-like flagellum that moves them through water. Some
male animals like fish release their sperm into the water in which they live.

The egg cells (on the right above) are produced monthly in female humans from the ovaries.
Women are born with all of their eggs, while males will start producing sperm in puberty and
always continue to do so.

The photo of the egg shows a magnified egg cell (the female gamete). A sperm cell can be seen
at the bottom of the photo, which gives a great example of the size difference.

External fertilisation
In fish, the females release their ova into the water and the sperm have to swim through the
water to fertilise the ova. This kind of fertilisation takes place outside the body and is therefore
called external fertilisation.

Internal fertilisation
Other male animals including birds and mammals, ejaculate their sperm in a special fluid
(semen) into the bodies of the females during sexual intercourse. Internal fertilisation then
takes place inside the female’s body. Fertilisation is much more likely.
Once the sperm has reached the ovum, its nucleus must enter the ovum and fuse with the
ovum nucleus.

Reproduction and Growth Page 7

Genetics of Fertilisation

A normal human body cell (with the exception of red blood cells and gametes) will have 46
chromosomes. These consist of 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (contain the same
genes).

The body cell contains a set of chromosomes (23) that originated from the organism's father
(sperm cell), and a set of chromosomes (23) that originated from the mother (egg cell or
ovum). The cell therefore has two sets of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) and is known
as a diploid cell.

In humans, sperm and ova each only have 23 chromosomes, half the genetic information
required for a human: cells with half the genetic information are known as haploid cells. When
the haploid sperm and haploid egg fuse, we say that fertilisation has occurred to form a
diploid cell.

The first cell that is formed at fertilisation is known as the zygote. As each gamete has only
half the normal number of chromosomes, the zygote formed by fertilisation will have the full
number of chromosomes.

Fertilisation is the fusion of haploid male and female gametes, restoring the diploid number of
chromosomes in the zygote.

Reproduction and Growth Page 8

Female Human Reproductive System

Females:
Ovary - where egg cells are formed by meiosis (in the follicle). Produces the
hormones oestrogen and progesterone.

Oviduct - egg cells travel down this to the uterus. Lined with cilia which move
the cell. Site of fertilisation

Uterus (womb) - a lining forms in the uterus, where the embryo will implant.
The foetus develops in the uterus, which has a thick muscular wall. This
contracts during labour.

Cervix - narrow opening to the uterus. This dilates (widens) during labour, to
allow the baby to be born.

Vagina - muscular tube that leads from the cervix to the outside of the
woman's body. A man's penis goes into the woman's vagina during sexual
intercourse and the baby passes through the vagina when it is born.

Reproduction and Growth Page 9

Male Reproductive System

Males:
Testes - where sperm cells are formed by meiosis. Produces the hormone
testosterone.

Sperm duct - maturing sperm are transported along this tube

Seminal vesicles and prostate gland - release liquids into the sperm duct, which mixes
with the sperm cells to form semen. The liquid provides nutrients to the sperm.

Penis - transports urine and semen out of the body. Contains tissue which fills with
blood to become erect; this helps to pass the semen out of the body and into the
female's vagina during sexual intercourse.

Urethra - tube inside the penis which can transport either urine or semen.

Reproduction and Growth Page 10

Sperms journey & Random Fertilisation

During sexual intercourse, sperm pass along the sperm duct and are mixed with a fluid from the
seminal vesicles. This mixture called semen, is ejaculated into the vagina of the female out of
the urethra. The sperm then begin to swim towards the oviducts (also known as fallopian
tubes).

One ovum (egg cell) is released into a oviduct each month from an ovary. If an ovum is present
in the oviducts, then it may be fertilised by sperm introduced during intercourse

Random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring

• Each male ejaculate will contain millions of sperm cells. Each of these sperm cells is
genetically different due to the process that has created them.
• Each female egg cell will also be genetically different due to how it was created.
• Which sperm cell fertilises the egg is random.
• This ‘randomness’ causes variation in the genetics of the new offspring. You will learn
about the advantages of this genetic variation in a later topic.

Reproduction and Growth Page 11

 Roles of the placenta and amniotic fluid

The placenta secretes the hormone progesterone to ensure the uterus lining remains thick, and
prevent the embryo from aborting.

During pregnancy a membrane called the amnion encloses the developing embryo. The amnion
secretes a fluid called amniotic fluid, which protects the developing embryo against jolts and
bumps (mechanical shocks), drying out, and temperature fluctuations (due to waters high specific
heat capacity).

As the embryo develops it becomes more and more complex. When it looks human, we call it a
foetus.

At the end of nine months of development, there isn’t any room left for the foetus to grow and it
sends a hormonal ‘signal’ to the mother to initiate birth – this is called ‘going into labour’. Once the
foetus is born we refer to it as a baby. (Though you would probably use its name e.g. Gertrude).

A placenta, connected by an umbilical cord, develops from the embryo. The placenta anchors the
embryo in the uterus. It also allows:

• Nutrients (i.e. glucose, amino acids and salts) and oxygen to move from the mother to the
embryo

• Metabolic wastes - carbon dioxide and urea - to move from the embryo to the mother

These materials pass from one to the other by diffusion.

There is no physical connection between the circulatory systems of the embryo and its mother, so
their blood doesn’t mix. Why is this the case?

1. The mothers blood is much higher pressure than the fetal blood.
2. The mothers blood has white blood cells and other chemicals that would see the fetal blood as
foreign, and attack it!

Reproduction and Growth Page 12

Roles of oestrogen and progesterone in development of
secondary sexual characteristics.

Most animals are unable to reproduce when they are young – they are sexually immature.
During their teens, changes happen to boys and girls that lead to sexual maturity. These
changes are controlled by hormones, and the time when they happen is called puberty.

In males the main hormone involved is called testosterone, and in females the hormone
oestrogen. These cause the development of secondary sexual characteristics:

BOYS GIRLS
Voice breaks Voice deepens, but doesn’t break
Sperm production begins The menstrual cycle begins
Shoulders broaden Pelvis broadens in preparation for pregnancy and
labour
Facial, armpit, body and pubic hair Armpit and pubic hair growth
growth
Greater muscle development Muscle development and fat deposits on breasts, hips
and thighs
Growth and development of Growth and development of genitalia
genitalia
Possible mood swings and acne Possible mood swings and acne

Reproduction and Growth Page 13

The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle begins with the breakdown and loss of the uterine lining - this is the
woman's period.

At the same time, the pituitary gland has begun to produce increasing amounts of the
hormone FSH. This tells the ovary to form a mature egg cell - a follicle develops with the
maturing egg inside it. The follicle produces the hormone oestrogen.

The lining of the uterus has been repaired after menstruation and has thickened – this repair
and thickening of the uterus lining has been brought about by the hormone oestrogen. As
oestrogen levels rise, the stop FSH production and trigger LH production in the pituitary
gland. LH stimulates ovulation - the release of the mature egg from the ovary.

After the egg has been released, it travels down the oviduct (Fallopian tube) to the uterus. It
is in the oviduct that fertilisation may happen, if sexual intercourse has taken place.

What is left of the follicle in the ovary now forms a structure in the ovary called the corpus
luteum. The corpus luteum makes another hormone called progesterone. Later on in
pregnancy, the placenta secretes progesterone, taking over the role of the corpus luteum.

The first sign therefore that tells a woman she is pregnant is when her monthly periods stop.

Reproduction and Growth Page 14

Hormones in the menstrual cycle

The function of the menstrual cycle is to control the development of the lining of the uterus
(womb), so that if the ovum is fertilised, the lining will be thick and ready to receive the fertilised
egg. If the egg is not fertilised, the lining of the uterus is lost from the woman’s body as the flow of
menstrual blood called a period.

The timing of events in the menstrual cycle is controlled by four hormones: These hormones are
FSH, oestrogen, LH and progesterone.
Hormone Gland secreted Target organ / Effect
from tissue
FSH pituitary gland follicle in ovary follicle develops and ovum matures (not released
yet)
maturing follicle releases oestrogen
Oestrogen Ovary (follicle in pituitary gland inhibits FSH production (stops another ovum being
ovary) matured)
pituitary gland stimulates LH production
uterus lining thickens
LH pituitary gland follicle in ovary ovulation – follicle on ovary releases mature ovum
into oviduct
remnant of follicle (on ovary) becomes corpus
luteum
Progesterone Ovary (corpus pituitary gland FSH and LH inhibited (stops further ovum being
luteum) matured and released)
uterus lining thickness of uterine lining maintained

Reproduction and Growth Page 15

PPQ - Human Reproduction
Q1. The diagrams show the female and male reproductive systems.

The table lists some events that take place in the female reproductive system, some that take
place in the male reproductive system, and some that take place in both.
Complete the table by giving the letter, or letters, to indicate where each event takes place. The
first one has been done for you.
(5)

(Total for question = 5 marks)

Reproduction and Growth Page 16

Q2.

The diagram shows the structure of the female reproductive organs.

(a) Name the structures labelled in the diagram.

(4)
(b) The graph shows changes in the hormones oestrogen and progesterone during a woman's
menstrual cycle.

On the graph indicate using

(i) a letter O, the day when ovulation is most likely to occur. (1)
(ii) a letter M, the day when menstruation is likely to start.(1)

(iii) Describe the changes that take place in structure R during the menstrual cycle.
(3)
.
(c) Some women only have sexual intercourse at certain times of their menstrual cycle in order to
avoid pregnancy.
Explain why this may not be a reliable method of birth control.
(2)
(d) Describe the role of oestrogen at puberty.
(3)
(Total for question = 14 marks)

Reproduction and Growth Page 17

Sexual Reproduction vs. Asexual Reproduction
Plants, like animals, can reproduce sexually and asexually. There are benefits of both methods, depending
on the environment the plant lives in. Some plants are capable of both!

Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce offspring. There are two types of
reproduction:
Sexual reproduction

This produces genetically varied offspring using specialised sex cells called gametes. This method is
an advantage in a changing environment or when there is a threat of disease from pathogens. In
order for a new plant to be produced by sexual reproduction three steps need to occur: pollination,
fertilisation and germination. The sexual organs of a flowering plant are its flowers, these are the
sites of pollination and fertilisation.

Asexual reproduction

This produces genetically identical offspring. Gametes are not needed and there is only one parent
involved. The offspring are called clones. This method is an advantage in a stable environment
because it allows parent plants with advantageous adaptations to produce offspring with the same
beneficial characteristics.
There are many different natural methods of asexual reproduction in plants. Most involve part of
the plant growing, and then breaking away from the parent plant before growing into a new plant.
Method Diagram
Runners - a new plant is produced where the runner touches the
ground.

Tubers - swollen underground stems containing lots of stored

food. One plant can produce many tubers which can each grow
many shoots which form new plants.

Bulbs - underground buds with thick fleshy leaves containing

stored food. A main shoot will grow out of the parent bulb and
another will grow out of the side 'daughter' bulb, forming two
plants.

An artificial method is to grow plants from cuttings. A piece of a plant's stem, with a few leaves
attached, is cut from a healthy plant. This is planted in damp compost, where it will grow roots and
develop into a new plant.

Reproduction and Growth Page 18

Flower Structure and Pollination
Flowers are the sex organs of plants. They have three main functions:
• Production of gametes
• Sites of pollination and fertilisation
• Sites of seed and fruit formation

Gametes

Pollen - is the gamete produced in the anther which is part of the male part (stamen) of the flower:

Ova - is the gamete produced in the ovules found in the ovary within the female park (carpel) of the
flower:

Pollination

The transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on another
plant is cross-pollination. Self-pollination, when the pollen does no reach a different plant, is less
commonly seen.

Reproduction and Growth Page 19

Insect vs. Wind Pollinated Flowers

Flowers have structural adaptations to increase the chance of pollination either by insects or
wind. Insect pollinated flowers have structural adaptations to attract insects to them and ensure
the insects push close to the stamens and stigma within the flower. Wind pollinated flowers need
to expose their stamens and stigma to the wind. They usually achieve this by having small, dull
coloured petals (usually green), so that the stamens and stigma are exposed outside of the
flower.

Feature of Insect Pollinated (A) Wind pollinated (B)

flower
Stamens Enclosed within flower. Exposed outside of petals
Stigma Enclosed within flower and sticky Exposed outside of petals, often
‘feathery’
Petals Large and brightly coloured Small, usually green
Nectaries Present - produce sugary fluid to attract Absent
insects

Reproduction and Growth Page 21

Pollination and Fertilisation
• In sexual reproduction, specialised sex cells called gametes are produced. There
are usually two types - a mobile male gamete (sperm and pollen) and a stationary
female gamete (ovum).
• The gametes must fuse (fertilisation), forming a single cell called a zygote.
• The zygote will divide many times by mitosis to form all the cells of the new
organism.

1. In plants pollen grains are deposited onto the stigma.

2. The pollen grain normally grows a pollen tube which grows down through the
style.
3. Enzymes are secreted at the tip of the tube which digest the tissues of the style.
4. When the tube reaches an ovule the male gamete travels through the tube
entering the ovule through a small hole called the micropyle.
5. It then fuses with the female gamete (ovum) in the process of fertilisation.
6. The fertilised ovum divides by mitosis to form the embryo
7. The ovule develops into the seed.
8. The ovary develops into the fruit

Reproduction and Growth Page 22

 Seed development
In sexual reproduction, specialised sex cells called GAMETES are produced. There are
usually 2 types – a mobile male gamete (SPERM or POLLEN) and a stationary female
gamete (OVUM).

The gametes must fuse (FERTILISATION), forming a single cell called a ZYGOTE.

The zygote will divide many times by mitosis to form all the cells of the new organism.

Fruit Formation

Once fertilisation occurs, a number of changes take place.

The fertilised ovule becomes a seed and the ovary becomes a fruit, whose job it is to
disperse the seeds. Specifically the following happens:

1. The zygote develops into an embryonic plant with a small root (radicle) and shoot
(plumule)

2. The other contents of the ovule develop into COTYLEDONS which will be a food store
for the young plant when it germinates.

3. The ovule wall becomes the seed coat, or TESTA (the hard coating of the seed)

4. The ovary wall becomes the fruit coat.

Have a look at this pear below:

Reproduction and Growth Page 23

Germination

Germinating seeds need a great deal of energy quickly.

They therefore use their food stores using ENZYMES that break down carbohydrate stores.

These are then used as a fuel in respiration to release energy.

This occurs until the leaves are in a position to photosynthesize.

In order to germinate plants need;

1. Oxygen - to aerobically respire

2. Warmth - optimum temperature for enzymes

3. Water - to activate the enzymes

Reproduction and Growth Page 24

 Investigating the conditions needed for germination

Cress seeds are added to cotton wool in test tubes.

 Tube A is put in a fridge (no warmth) and the rest are kept on a windowsill.
 In tube C, the cotton wool is moistened with boiled water and an oxygen absorber such as sodium
pyrogallol is added (no oxygen).
 Tube E is wrapped in foil (no light).
 The cotton wool in tube B is kept dry (no water).
 Tube D has all the conditions present.
Check for germination after 2-3 days - you could combine class results and calculate % germination
or mean length of seed for each condition.

Thinking questions:

• How can we tell if a seed has germinated?

• What different molecules do the seeds use as energy stores?
• Explain why each condition is required for successful germination.

Reproduction and Growth Page 25

 PPQ - Plant Reproduction
Q1.

Plants can reproduce sexually or asexually.

Plants that reproduce sexually can be pollinated by insects or by wind.
(a) State three ways in which the structure of insect-pollinated flowers differs from the structure of
wind-pollinated flowers.
(3)

(b) The diagram shows a flower from a plant.

Name the structures labelled on the diagram.

(3)
A ..........................................................................................................................................
B ..........................................................................................................................................
C ..........................................................................................................................................

(c) The flower in the diagram is insect-pollinated.

An insect carrying pollen lands on the flower.
Describe the events that lead to seed formation.
(5)
(Total for question = 11 marks)

Q2.

Plants can reproduce sexually and produce seeds.

These seeds can remain dormant for long periods of time before germination takes place.
(a) What is meant by the term germination?
(1)
(b) Explain three conditions needed for seeds to germinate.
(6)
(Total for question = 7 marks)

Reproduction and Growth Page 26

 Q3.

A teacher set up an experiment to investigate the factors required for seed germination. He set up
four test tubes containing cotton wool and cress seeds as shown in the diagram.

He placed tubes A, B and C in an incubator at 20°C and tube D in a fridge at 4°C.

He left the tubes for four days then returned to look at them.
He asked his students to produce a table to show the factor being tested and whether the seeds
germinated.
(a) Complete the table to show the factor being tested and whether the seeds are likely to germinate.
(3)

(b) (i) Suggest how the students could see if germination had taken place.
(1)
(ii) Name two other variables the teacher should control in his experiment.
(2)
(c) Other seeds such as beans or peas contain larger food stores.
(i) Suggest a food molecule that seeds could use as a food store.
(1)

(ii) Explain why it is important for seeds to have a food store.

(2)
(d) Describe an experiment you could carry out to determine the energy content of a seed.
(4)
(Total for question = 13 marks)

Reproduction and Growth Page 29

Movement of substances - topic content

By the end of this topic you will have learnt to: Completed class Retrieval Revision
and home work practice questions
completed completed

2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and

active transport by which substances move into and out of
cells
2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of
substances into and out of cells, including the effects of
surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and
concentration gradient
2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living
and non-living systems
2.53 describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose
and amino acids between the leaves and other parts of the
plant
2.54 describe the role of xylem in transporting water and
mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant
2.55B understand how water is absorbed by root hair cells
2.56B understand that transpiration is the evaporation of
water from the surface of a plant
2.57B understand how the rate of transpiration is affected
by changes in humidity, wind speed, temperature and light
intensity
2.58B practical: investigate the role of environmental
factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a
leafy shoot
2.71 know the excretory products of the lungs, kidneys and
skin (organs of excretion)
2.72B understand how the kidney carries out its roles of
excretion and osmoregulation
2.73B describe the structure of the urinary system,
including the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra
2.74B describe the structure of a nephron, including the
Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus, convoluted tubules,
loop of Henle and collecting duct
2.75B describe ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule and
the composition of the glomerular filtrate
2.76B understand how water is reabsorbed into the blood
from the collecting duct
2.77B understand why selective reabsorption of glucose
occurs at the proximal convoluted tubule
2.79B understand that urine contains water, urea and ions

Movement Page 1
Movement of substances - topic content (continued)

By the end of this topic you will have learnt to: Completed class Retrieval Revision
and home work practice questions
completed completed

2.70 understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as

waste products of metabolism and their loss from the
stomata of a leaf
2.40B understand the role of diffusion in gas exchange
2.41B understand gas exchange (of carbon dioxide and
oxygen) in relation to respiration and photosynthesis
2.42B understand how the structure of the leaf is adapted
for gas exchange
2.43B describe the role of stomata in gas exchange
2.44B understand how respiration continues during the
day and night, but that the net exchange of carbon dioxide
and oxygen depends on the intensity of light
2.45B practical: investigate the effect of light on net gas
exchange from a leaf, using hydrogen-carbonate indicator

Movement Page 2
Diffusion
Diffusion is the random movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration.

Remember, all particles move randomly (in different directions) all the time due to their
kinetic energy. Diffusion describes the overall direction and speed of movement.

High
Concentration

Over time the particles will be

equally distributed. This is called
equilibrium.
This does not mean that the
Low particles stop moving!
Concentration

Diffusion (and osmosis) can happen at different speeds or rates. There are four main
factors that affect the rate of diffusion you need to know about:

1. Temperature. At higher temperatures, molecules have more kinetic energy and so

move faster. Therefore diffusion occurs faster

2. Concentration gradient. If there is a very large difference in concentration between

to areas, molecules will diffuse from the higher to the lower concentration quickly. If
the concentration gradient (difference) is small, diffusion will happen more slowly.

3. Distance. Diffusion takes longer if the molecules have to travel further*. Therefore
cells are small (smaller volume reduces distance). *Remember, molecules do not
travel in a straight line, slowing the process.

4. Surface area: volume. A larger surface area speeds up the rate of diffusion as there
are more opportunities for the molecules to move, which is why surfaces such as
alveoli in lungs are so large. Surface area to volume ratio is more significant, as the
two counteract (oppose) each other: an efficient exchange surface has a surface area
which is very large compared to the distance the molecules must travel. SA:V is
increased when structures are small. Have a look at this video for more information
[Link]

Cells which rely on diffusion for their function, typically maximise their surface area and
minimise their volume.

Movement Page 3
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. It is only ever used to describe the movement of
water molecules across a membrane.

The examiners definition is "Osmosis is the net diffusion of free water molecules from an
area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration across a
partially permeable membrane"

So, there are two new key terms that we need to explain - "free water molecules" and
"partially permeable membrane"

Free Water Molecules

Therefore there are
Free water less free water
molecules molecules in this
beaker

When the sugar

dissolves water
Undissolved molecules are
sugar attracted to the
molecules sugar molecules.
These water
molecules are now
not considered free.

Partially Permeable Membrane

A partially permeable membrane is a
membrane that only allows certain particles
through. In the case of the diagram the
particles are selected by size. The free water
molecules can move through however the
sugar-water complexes are too big.

There are 22 free water molecules on the

left and 10 free water molecules on the
right. Therefore the overall movement of
water will be towards the right hand side.

We have to say overall movement as

particles move randomly, in all directions.

Movement Page 4
Water Potential in Cells
Rather than referring to high concentrations and low concentrations (like in diffusion) it is
more scientific to refer to water potential.

‘Water potential’ is a measure of the concentration of free water molecules in a solution.

Pure water has a water potential of zero. As a solute is added, water potential falls as there
will be a lower concentration of free water molecules. Concentrated solutions have a very
low water potential. In osmosis, water moves from area of high water potential to an area
of lower (more negative) water potential.

Osmosis in Cells
Free water molecules are constantly moving in and out of cells. Animal and plant cells react
differently to being placed in different concentrations. This is because plant cells have a cell
wall which can withstand a large amount of water pressure.

The diagram below shows what happens when animal and plant cells are placed in different
solutions.

Isotonic Solution - the solution outside the cell has the same water potential as inside the
cell - no net movement

Hypotonic Solution - the solution outside the cell has a higher water potential then inside
the cell - net movement of free water molecules into the cell

Hypertonic Solution - the solution outside the cell has a lower water potential then inside
the cell - net movement of free water molecules out of the cell

Plants wilt because there

is not enough water to fill
their cells and therefore
the cytoplasm shrinks
from the cell wall.

Movement Page 5
Active Transport
There is one more method of transport that you need to know about.

Active transport is used by organisms to transport substances against the concentration

gradient. In order to do this the organism needs special carrier proteins in the cell
membrane. These use ATP to provide the energy to move the substances across the
membrane against the concentration gradient.

Energy must be
used to pump
the substances
across

Glucose is absorbed by active transport in the small intestine and plants use active transport in
their root hair cells to absorb mineral ions.

The perfect "examiners" definition is "Active Transport is the movement of

molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration
using ATP"

Movement Page 6
Experiments: investigating factors affecting rate of
diffusion and osmosis

There are lots of different methods to investigate the relationship between temperature,
surface area and concentration gradient and the rate of diffusion (and osmosis).

Agar cubes of different sizes can be used to

demonstrate the relationship between surface area :
volume ratio and rate of diffusion.
The cubes contain alkali and an indicator – they are
placed in an acid. As the acid diffuses into the cube it
reacts with the alkali – this neutralisation turns the
indicator colourless.
The smallest (0.5cm length) cube becomes colourless
quickest.
How could you modify this experiment to explore the
effect of temperature on diffusion?

Potato chips can be placed in sucrose or salt

solutions of different concentrations.

Osmosis will occur until the water potential

of the tissue and solution are the same; this
causes a mass change.
• If the solution has a higher water
concentration, water will move into
the potato chip and the mass will
increase.
• If the solution has a lower water
concentration, water will move out of
the potato chip and the mass will
decrease.
This method can be used to determine the
water potential of the potato. If there is no
change in mass, the concentration of the
solution is the same as the concentration of
the cytoplasm.

By leaving the experiment for a short time

(e.g. 20 minutes), you could explore the
effect of concentration gradient on the rate
of osmosis. The potato chips in solutions
where the concentration has the biggest
difference to the cytoplasm will experience
the biggest mass changes.

Movement Page 7
 Experiments: investigating factors affecting rate of
diffusion and osmosis

Visking tubing only allows small

soluble molecules to pass
through (e.g. glucose and
water). Therefore osmosis can
occur.

You could change the concentration of the sucrose solution or the temperature of the water
to investigate the effect on osmosis – the height the liquid rises in a set time will increase if
osmosis is faster.

We can also use thin sections of

onion cells to study the effects
of osmosis.

The cells on the left are turgid – they are soaked in pure water.
The cells on the right are plasmolysed – they have been soaked in a concentrated salt or sugar
solution.

Thinking questions

• How does diffusion differ from osmosis?

• How can we explain the effect of temperature, concentration and surface area on the rate of
diffusion?
• How does the decrease in SA:V as the size of organisms increases help to explain the need for
circulation systems?
• How might isolated animal cells be affected by immersion in pure water or concentrated
sodium chloride solution?
• How can Visking tubing be used as a model for digestion and absorption?
• How might the relationship between active transport and concentration or temperature be
different from that between diffusion and concentration or temperature?

Movement Page 8
Review task - transport processes

Diffusion Osmosis

Active transport

Movement Page 9
Past exam question - transport processes
Q1. A chicken egg is a single cell protected by a shell on the outside.
A student puts three chicken eggs into dilute acid and leaves them for three days.
The acid dissolves the egg shells, leaving the contents of the eggs surrounded by the cell
membrane.
The diagram shows the student's method.

The student removes the eggs

from the dilute acid and uses
water to wash the surface acid
away.
The student then uses the eggs
for this osmosis experiment.

· he measures the mass of each egg

· he then puts one egg into a beaker containing distilled water
· he puts another egg into a beaker containing 5% salt solution
· he puts a third egg into a beaker containing 15% salt solution
· after 15 minutes he removes each egg from its beaker and measures its mass again

(a) The bar graph shows the results obtained by the student from the osmosis experiment.

(i) Name the dependent variable in this

experiment. (1)

(ii) Explain the result for the egg placed in

distilled water. (2)

(b) The student calculates the percentage

change in mass for the eggs placed in distilled
water and in 5% salt solution.
(i) Use the data from graph 1 to calculate the
percentage change in mass for the egg placed
in 15% salt solution. Show your working. (2)

(ii) The student plots the percentage change

in mass on graph 2.
Complete the bar graph to show the
percentage change in mass for the egg
placed in 15% salt solution. (1)

(c) Give one way in which osmosis differs

from diffusion. (1)

(Total for question = 7 marks)

Movement Page 10
Past exam question - transport processes
Q2. A student investigated the effect of size on the movement of molecules.
He cut three different sized cubes from a
block of clear agar jelly.
Cube A was 2 × 2 × 2 cm. Cube B was 1 × 1 × 1
cm and cube C was 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 cm.

The student wore safety glasses and placed the cubes in a beaker of red dye solution for five
minutes.
He then poured the solution into another beaker, washed the surface of the cubes and dried them
with blotting paper.
He then cut each cube in half and examined the newly cut surfaces.
Diagram 1 shows what the cubes looked like.

(a) Why did he wear safety glasses? (1)

(b) Explain how the red dye molecules entered the jelly. (2)

(c) Use a ruler to measure the distance the red dye has entered each cube in diagram 1. (1)

(d) (i) Calculate the surface area of cube A. (2)

surface area = ................................................. unit .................................

(ii) Calculate the volume of cube A. (2)

volume = ................................................. unit .................................

(e) The student was told by his teacher that the cubes have different surface area to volume
ratios.
Complete the table by putting one tick in each row to show whether the statement applies
to cube A, B or C. (3)

(f) Explain how this experiment can be used to understand the need for transport systems in
larger organisms such as humans. (3)

(Total for question = 14 marks)

Movement Page 11
 Transport in Plants
The transport system in plants enables leaves to receive water for photosynthesis and
mineral ions needed to convert the products of photosynthesis into useful substances.
Once formed these are then transported to other parts of the plants like growing tips,
flowers and storage areas.

Xylem Phloem
• This consists of living cells.
• Made up of thick walled dead • Tubes are formed by cells
cells which contain no cytoplasm - arranged end to end but have
they are completely hollow and cell walls made of cellulose.
arranged end to end • The sugar made in
• Cell wall contains lignin - photosynthesis is converted to
waterproof sucrose (another sugar).
• The end walls have broken down • Phloem transports sucrose and
so they form a continuous amino acids from the leaves
transport system throughout the (where they are made) to the
plant growing points (eg the tips of
• Transports water and mineral the shoot and flowers) or
ions from the roots to the leaves. Plant Stem
storage areas (such as the roots
• Nitrate ions are needed to make or bulbs).
amino acids and proteins • Moving sucrose and amino
• Magnesium ions are needed to acids around the plant requires
make chlorophyll energy. This is called
translocation.

Movement Page 12
Transport of Water

Plants take in water from the soil through their

root hairs, these are the main site of water
absorption by the roots. They are thin walled
(short distance) and have hair like extensions
that greatly increase the surface area of the root
epidermis. The function of a root hair is to
absorb water and minerals from the soil.

The water has some solutes dissolved in it but

their concentration is much lower than the
concentrations of solutes inside the root hair
cells. Mineral ions are actively transported into
the root hair cells. The soil water has a higher
concentration of water molecules and water will
enter the cell by osmosis.

Water continues to move down a water concentration gradient from where there are more
water molecules to where there are fewer water molecules. This gradient is maintained as
water is continually being taken up by the xylem in the middle of the root. The water is
carried in the xylem vessels to all parts of the plant.

Movement Page 13
Transpiration

Osmosis is also involved in the

movement of water through the
leaves. The epidermis is covered by a
waxy cuticle so is impermeable to
water.

Most water passes out of the stomata

as water vapour. Water leaves the
cells of the mesophyll and evaporates
into the air spaces between the
spongy mesophyll. The water vapour
then diffuses out through the
stomata.

Loss of water from the mesophyll cells

makes the cells have a lower
concentration of water molecules. So
water moves into them by osmosis
from the surrounding mesophyll cells.
Water leaves the xylem to replace the
water lost from nearby cells.

This loss of water vapour form the leaves is called transpiration. Transpiration causes water to
be pulled up the xylem in the stem and roots in a continuous flow known as the transpiration
stream.

Exam definition
‘Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surface of a plant’

Functions of the transpiration stream

• To carry mineral ions to the leaves for the synthesis of amino acid and chlorophyll.

• To keep turgor pressure high in leaf cells, holding the leaves up.

• Evaporation cools the leaves.

• Supplies water for photosynthesis

Movement Page 14
Effect of Environmental Conditions on Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the leaves, so any change in the
atmosphere which increases or reduces evaporation will have the same effect on
transpiration.

1. Temperature
· On a hot day, water will evaporate quickly from the leaves of a plant as
the water molecules have more kinetic energy.
· Transpiration therefore will increase as temperature increases.

2. Humidity
· Very humid air contains a great deal of water vapour – there is a smaller
concentration gradient, so transpiration slows down.
· In dry air the diffusion of water vapour from the leaf to the atmosphere
will be rapid.
· Transpiration therefore increases if humidity decreases.

3. Wind Speed
· In still air, the region around a transpiring leaf will become saturated
(full) with water vapour so that no more can escape from the leaf –
causing transpiration to slow down.
· In moving air, the water vapour will be blown away from the leaf as fast
as it diffuses out. This will speed up transpiration.
· Transpiration therefore increases as wind speed increases.

4. Light Intensity
· Light itself does not affect evaporation, but in daylight the stomata of
leaves are open to supply carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
· This allows more water to diffuse out of the leaves and into the
atmosphere

5. Water Supply
· If water is in short supply, and the plant is losing water by transpiration
faster than it is being taken up by the roots.
· Then the plant may start to wilt.
· Before this happens the guard cells become flaccid and stomata start to
close, therefore reducing transpiration and delaying wilting.

Movement Page 15
Stomatal opening
The stomata are holes in the surface of the leaf. They are mainly found on the bottom
surface. There are two guard cells on either side of the stomata - these are sausage
shaped cells which control the opening and closing of stomata. Each guard cell has a
thickened, inflexible inner cell wall (on the stomatal side).

In the light the guard cells photosynthesise. The concentration of sugars increases, the
water potential in the guard cells falls and so water moves into the guard cells by osmosis.
They become turgid (swollen) - this causes the guard cells to become banana shaped, due
to the inflexible inner cell wall, and opens the stomata.
Photosynthesis stops in the dark. As the sugar concentration falls (due to respiration),
water potential increases and water moves out of the guard cells. They become flaccid and
the stomata close.

Translocation of sugars
The phloem move sugars from the leaves to other
parts of the plant, where they are needed for
respiration or growth.

The sieve tube is living - it has a thin layer of

cytoplasm at the edge of the cell - but is mainly filled
with sap (a concentrated solution of sucrose and
amino acids). The sap flows through the sieve plates
and through the phloem.

The sieve tube does not have a nucleus - it is controlled and supported by the
neighbouring companion cells. These have lots of mitochondria and actively transport
sucrose into the phloem. This produces a low water potential (due to the high sucrose
concentration) and so water moves into the sieve tube by osmosis from nearby cells.
This creates a high pressure and pushes the sap towards areas where sucrose (and
water) are removed from the phloem.

Movement Page 16
Experiment: measuring the rate of transpiration

A potometer to measure the rate of water uptake from a leafy shoot – as 90% of this water is
transpired, we use this as a measure of the rate of transpiration.

How to set up a potometer:

1. The potometer must be set up under water - this prevents any air bubbles from entering the
system and blocking the xylem..

2. Cut the stem of a shoot.

3. Put the shoot stem into the bung, grease the joint with plenty of petroleum jelly - this prevents
water loss and air entry

4. Put the bung into the potometer.

5. Make sure the tap is closed and it is full of water (no bubbles). Then lift the potometer out of the
water.

6. Leave the end of the capillary tube out of the water until an air bubble forms then put the end
into a beaker of water.

7. You can measure the transpiration rate as distance the bubble travels in five minutes (or the
time taken for the bubble to travel a set distance). You should take a number of readings and
calculate a mean rate.

A potometer can be used to collect readings in normal air, windy conditions (e.g. using a hairdryer on
cold), increased temperature, increased humidity (e.g. using a clear plastic bag) and darkness. This
simulates all the different conditions which affect the rate of transpiration.

You could also remove the leaves (or cover them in Vaseline), to demonstrate the importance of
stomata.

Movement Page 17
Review tasks - plant transport

1. Compare and contrast the structure and function of the xylem and phloem

Xylem Phloem

2. Draw and label a root hair cell.

3. Annotate onto the picture the process of water uptake

Movement Page 18
Past exam questions - plant transport
Q1. A student sets up this apparatus to investigate the transpiration rate of a plant.

(a) (i) Suggest how the student could determine

the transpiration rate of the plant. (2)

(ii) Draw a diagram of the apparatus that the

student should set up as a control. (3)

(b) The student changes the conditions in which

the plant is kept. This affects the transpiration rate
of the plant.

Complete the table by giving the missing information. (5)

(c) Explain why transpiration is important to plants. (2)

(Total for question = 12 marks)

Q2. Steven wanted to measure the rate of water loss from a leafy shoot. He set up this apparatus
in normal laboratory conditions.

(a) Name the apparatus Steven used. (1)

(b) Name the process by which a plant loses water. (1)

(c) Describe how Steven should set up the apparatus

and how he should then use it to estimate the rate of
water loss from the leafy shoot. (4)

Movement Page 19
(d) Steven carried out three further experiments. He used the same plant, but changed
one condition in each experiment.

The table shows the percentage change in rate of water loss for each condition
when compared to Steven's original experiment.

Explain the change in water loss when

(i) wind was increased. (2)

(ii) light intensity was reduced. (1)

(iii) half of the leaves were removed. (2)

(e) Suggest how Steven could increase the wind around the leafy shoot. (1)

(Total for question = 12 marks)

Movement Page 20
Excretion
While cells carry out important chemical reactions they constantly produce waste
products, such as carbon dioxide. Some of these waste products can damage the cells –
they are toxic.

So these toxic substances must be removed from the body. The removal of toxic waste
substances which have been made by cells is called excretion.

The removal of faeces by the body is sometimes incorrectly called excretion. Excretion is a
word that should only apply to materials that are waste products of chemical
reactions. Faeces is not – it consists of undigested food which has passed through the
alimentary canal without entering cells. The correct name for this process is egestion.

Respiration
Respiration occurs in all living organisms. A waste product of this reaction carbon dioxide
which is removed via the lungs (in mammals and birds) and through leaves in plants.

Don’t forget the both

CO2 and O2 will move
both in and out of the
leaves as plants both
photosynthesise and
respire.

Excretion in humans
Humans cannot store excess amino acids like they can with carbohydrates and lipids (by
storing them as fat tissue). Therefore excess amino acids need to be broken down. However
what they are broken down into is toxic and therefore must be removed from the body.
Excretory Where is it How is it made? Where is it
Product made? removed?
Carbon Dioxide Respiring cells Respiration Lungs via blood
plasma
Urea Liver cells Breakdown of amino acids Kidneys & Skin
(deamination)

Movement Page 21
Urea Formation
1. Amino acids are filtered into the liver, along with the rest of the blood via
the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein.
2. Excess amino acids cannot be stored and need to be broken down so they
can be excreted. They are broken down into carbohydrates and ammonia

Liver

3. Ammonia is very toxic and must be converted into a slightly less toxic
chemical called urea.
4. Amino acids that are needed and the urea are released back into the
blood stream via the hepatic vein.

Movement Page 22
Kidney
Now that the urea has been produced by the liver it must be removed by another organ, the
kidney. The kidney filters the blood and removes any excess materials and passes them to
the bladder to be excreted. Below shows the position of the kidneys.

The kidney contains three main sections.

Around the outside and a lighter colour is the
cortex. In the middle are the triangular
shaped medulla and finally in the centre is
the pelvis (the yellowy section).
The bottom picture shows a dissected kidney
that has been cut lengthways.
The kidney contains millions of tiny
structures called nephrons, these are the
structures that filter the blood.

Movement Page 23
Nephron

The nephron contains many key

structures that are essential in the
filtration of the blood. We will go
through the stages, starting with
ultrafiltration.

1. The diameter of the efferent arteriole at the

exit of the glomerulus is smaller than the
diameter of the afferent arteriole at the
entrance. This creates a build-up of pressure in
the capillaries forming the glomerulus. Imagine
everyone trying to leave the PMH through one
door.
Stage 1 - Ultrafiltration

3. Larger molecules like

proteins or red blood
cells are too big to fit
across the capillary walls
and therefore stay in the
blood.

The capillaries of the

glomerulus have
gaps between the
cells. The basement
2. This pressure forces small membrane
molecules such as urea, glucose, surrounding the
amino acids and salts out of the capillaries controls
capillaries of the glomerulus and which molecules can
into the Bowman’s Capsule. This pass into the
forms the glomerular filtrate. Bowman's Capsule.

Movement Page 24
Stage 2 - Selective Reabsorption

The cells lining the

PCT are specialised
for movement of
molecules - they have
a folded membrane
to increase surface
area, and many
mitochondria to
provide ATP for active
transport.

1. The filtrate travels to the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). However it contains a lot of
useful materials such as glucose which would be wasted unless they were recovered.

2. There are specialised cells within the walls of the PCT. These move the useful materials
back into the blood stream. Initially molecules will move by diffusion, but some substances
are also moved against a concentration gradient using ATP. This is called active transport.
All of the glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed along with some salts and 80% of the
water!

Stage 3 - Water Reabsorption

Although 80% of water is reabsorbed in the PCT there is still some water needed to be
reabsorbed. Your kidneys will filter 180L of fluid a day but you will only produce 1.5L of
urine per day.
The Loop of Henle and collecting duct are both involved in
reabsorbing water if it is needed. The Loop of Henle
concentrates the urine by transporting salt into the blood by
active transport. This causes water to diffuse into the blood
by osmosis.
If you have lost a lot of water through sweating or perhaps
haven't taken any in your body will try and reabsorb as much
water from the filtrate as it can. This makes the urine very
concentrated, with a lower volume of water and therefore is
a darker browner colour.
The collecting duct responds to a hormone called ADH to
vary how much water is reabsorbed. This is called
osmoregulation.

Movement Page 25
Review task - excretion
Complete the table using the information on the previous pages. Identify where these processes
occur by colouring the region where they occur on the diagram below in the colour indicated in the
table.

Stage in Structure Function Description

urine (ultrafiltration, selective
production reabsorption,
concentration or
osmoregulation?)

The permeability of walls to water is increased in the

presence of ADH, which is secreted when blood water
potential decreases.
Substances needed by the body such as glucose and
sodium ions are removed from the filtrate by active
transport. Water is also reabsorbed by osmosis.
Blood is filtered, separating different sized molecules
under pressure. Water, ions and small molecules form
glomerular filtrate, while blood cells and large
molecules such as proteins remain in the blood.
Further water is removed from the filtrate.

Movement Page 26
Past exam question - excretion
Q1. The diagram shows some of the blood vessels and a nephron in the human kidney.
The numbers represent the concentration of glucose at various places in the blood vessels and in
the nephron, in arbitrary units.

(a) Explain how the structure of the blood vessels entering and leaving the glomerulus
help to move glucose into the Bowman's capsule.
(2)

(b) What type of blood vessels are found in the glomerulus?

(1)

(c) (i) Describe how glucose is reabsorbed from the nephron back into the blood.
(2)

(ii) Suggest why glucose needs to be returned to the blood.

(2)
(Total for question = 7 marks)

Movement Page 27
Q2. The human kidney removes urea from the blood.
(a) Name two other substances the kidney removes from the blood. (2)

(b) The diagram shows a simple kidney machine that uses dialysis to remove urea from the blood.

Dialysis allows small molecules to

be removed from the blood. This
is done by passing the dialysis
solution over the tube containing
the blood. The small molecules
move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low
concentration

(i) Give one way in which dialysis is similar to diffusion. (1)

(ii) Give one way in which dialysis is similar to osmosis. (1)

(iii) Describe how the kidney machine removes urea from the blood. (2)

(iv) Another function of the kidney machine is to maintain normal blood glucose
concentration.
Suggest how the concentration of glucose in the dialysis solution helps to maintain a normal
glucose concentration in the blood. (2)

(v) Describe two processes that take place in the kidney but not in the kidney machine. (4)

(c) Kidney failure can be treated by transplanting a healthy donor kidney into the patient.
(i) The procedure involves connecting two blood vessels and a tube to the transplanted
kidney.

Name the two blood vessels and the tube. (2)

(ii) Suggest why the transplanted kidney is placed in the lower abdomen instead of in the
kidney's usual location. (2)

(Total for question = 16 marks)

Movement Page 28
Gas exchange in plants

When plants photosynthesise, they absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen.

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

However, plants are also constantly respiring as all their cells require energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

We need to know the overall movement of gases in and out of the leaf.

When photosynthesis is faster than respiration - during the day, at higher light
intensities - there will be a net uptake of carbon dioxide and net release of oxygen. We
say oxygen is excreted from the leaves.

When respiration is faster than photosynthesis - in the dark and at low light
intensities - there will be a net uptake of oxygen and net release of carbon dioxide. We
say carbon dioxide is excreted from the leaves.

Gas exchange occurs between the air spaces in the leaves and the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide and oxygen diffuse, moving through the stomata.

Oxygen excreted from leaves

(photosynthesis faster)

No net gas exchange

(photosynthesis and
respiration occurring
at the same rate)

Carbon dioxide excreted from

leaves (respiration faster)

Movement Page 29
Structure of a leaf

The leaf is specialised for gas exchange.

• The leaf is thin, so the diffusion distance is short. It also has a large surface area,
increasing the number of stomata, so that carbon dioxide can diffuse quicker.
• Stomata allow gases to diffuse into / out of the air spaces of the leaf. This provides
a short diffusion distance to the mesophyll cells.
• Gases include moving into/out of the leaf include water vapour (lost in
transpiration), oxygen (absorbed at night for respiration) and carbon dioxide
(absorbed for photosynthesis).
• The guard cells form the stomata and can change shape, altering the size of the
stomata.
• The stomata close to reduce water loss (and gas exchange). This happens when the
plant has lost too much water - the guard cells become flaccid, so the cell walls are
not held apart and the stomata shrink

Movement Page 30
 Experiment: gas exchange in plants

 This investigation uses sodium hydrogen-carbonate indicator to show the changes in carbon
dioxide concentration in the air surrounding leaves in different light conditions.
 Leaves of, for example, privet are placed in three of four boiling tubes containing a small volume
(2 cm3) of sodium hydrogen carbonate indicator (red / orange when in balance with atmosphere).
 One tube is placed in bright light, one is wrapped in foil, one is wrapped in tissue paper (weak
light) and the tube with a dead leaf is also left in bright light. The tubes are then left for 40
minutes.
 The diagram above shows the expected results.

Thinking questions:

• What is the function of the tube with a boiled leaf?

• Why is hydrogen-carbonate indicator used rather than limewater?
• How do the each of the three experimental tubes represent a different time of day?
• How do changes in gas exchange reflect processes going on in the leaf cells?

Movement Page 31
 Past exam question - gas exchange in plants
Ian wanted to investigate how gas exchange in a flowering plant changed with light intensity.

He set up an experiment using four tubes. Each of the tubes contained orange hydrogen
carbonate indicator solution and was sealed with a cork. Ian added a fresh leaf to tubes A, B and
C. Tube D had no leaf.
The tubes were then left in the following conditions:
• Tube A was placed in direct sunlight.
• Tube B was covered with aluminium foil to prevent any light entering the tube.
• Tube C was covered with thin cloth that allowed some light to enter the tube.
• Tube D was also placed in direct sunlight.
He left the tubes in the laboratory for one hour and then returned to look at the colour of the
indicator solution in the tubes.
(a) Suggest a hypothesis for Ian's investigation. (2)

(b) Give two variables that Ian should keep constant in his investigation. (2)

(c) State the purpose of Tube D in the investigation. (1)

(d) Ian recorded his results in a table.

Tube Colour of indicator at start Colour of indicator after one hour
A orange purple
B orange yellow
C orange orange
D orange orange

(i) Explain the change in colour of the indicator in Tube A. (2)

(ii) Explain the change in colour of the indicator in Tube B. (2)

(e) Suggest why the indicator did not change colour in:
(i) Tube C (1)
(ii) Tube D (1)

(f) Limewater is an indicator that can be used to show an increase in the level of carbon dioxide.
Suggest why it would not be a suitable indicator for use in this investigation. (1)
(Total for question = 12 marks)

Movement Page 32
Co-ordination and control - topic content

By the end of this topic you will have learnt to: Completed class Retrieval Revision
and home work practice questions
completed completed
2.80 understand how organisms are able to respond to changes
in their environment
2.82 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus,
a receptor and an effector
2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the
brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves
2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs
sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central
nervous system, resulting in rapid responses
2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses
2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc
illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
2.91 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
2.92 understand the function of the eye in focusing on near and
distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity
2.94 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following
hormones: adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and
oestrogen
2.86 describe how nervous and hormonal communication control
responses and understand the differences between the two
systems
2.83 understand that plants respond to stimuli
2.84 describe the geotropic and phototropic responses of roots
and stems
2.85 understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of
stems
2.81 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a
constant internal environment, and that body water content and
body temperature are both examples of homeostasis
2.93 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with
reference to sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
2.78B describe the role of ADH in regulating the water content
of the blood
2.72B understand how the kidney carries out its roles of
osmoregulation
2.95B understand the sources, roles and effects of the following
hormones: ADH, FSH and LH

Control Page 1
Responding to change
10:52
As part of MRS H. GREN , organisms are able to respond to changes in their
environment and make a coordinated response. ‘Coordinated’ means that the body is
able to make things happen in different parts of the body at the right time

Humans and other animals have two organ systems which do this – the nervous system
and the endocrine (hormone) system.

Plants are also able to respond to changes in their environment – for example they can
respond to the direction of light and grow towards it—this is called phototropism and
will be covered in greater detail later.

A coordinated response requires three things a stimulus, a receptor and an effector.

Stimulus Change in the animal’s surroundings.

e.g. a ball is thrown towards you

Receptor Is the organ which detects the change

e.g. your eye

Effector Muscles are the effectors and they

contract as you catch the ball

The link between the stimulus and response is made by the nervous or endocrine
system.

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Stimuli and receptors
Receptors detect the stimulus and change its energy into nerve impulses. Our
sense organs are receptors, for example the eye converts light energy into
nerve impulses.
Receptor Energy conversion: Turns ______ into
nerve impulses
Eye Light
Ear Sound
Tongue Chemical
Nose Chemical
Skin Pressure
(touch receptors)
Skin Heat
(temperature receptors)

Nervous System

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Neurones
Our sense organs (e.g. the skin) and the effectors (e.g. muscles) by nerve cells–
nerve cells are called neurones.

There are 3 types of neurones; Sensory neurones, Relay neurones, Motor

neurones

Impulses from receptors pass along sensory neurones until they reach the brain
and spinal cord (Central Nervous System). Impulses pass to relay neurones in the
CNS. The impulse is then passed to effectors (muscles or glands) along motor
neurones.

Motor Neurone structure

Nucleus Contains all the genetic information of the cell

Dendrite Tree like projections which connect to different neurones. One
neurone can connect to many other neurones
Cell Body The main section of the cell. Contains the nucleus
Axon The long section - electrical impulses travel long distances through
the axon.
Myelin Insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission of the impulse.
Sheath

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 Reflexes

Reflexes are automated actions which do not

involve the brain. They are very fast actions which
involve the three neurones; sensory, relay and
motor neurones.
The diagram to the left shows a cross section of the
spine and of course a table on fire. The person will
very quickly move their hand away when the heat is
detected.
The movement of the impulse from receptor to
effector is called a reflex arc.
We will go through the steps involved in this reflex
arc below;

The receptors detect the stimulus (change in

temperature) and send an impulse along the
sensory neurone (red).

The sensory neurone passes the impulse

to the spinal cord to a relay neurone
(purple). The gap between neurones is
called a synapse. The relay neurone then
passes the impulse through the spinal cord
to a motor neurone (yellow).

The motor neurone causes the

effector (in this case arm muscle) to
contract and move the arm away
from the stimulus (fire).

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 Synapses

Two neurons do not make direct contact. Where they meet, there is a very
small gap called a synapse. The signal needs to cross this gap to continue on
its journey to, or from, the CNS.

1. An electrical impulse travels along an axon.

2. This triggers the nerve-ending of a neuron to release chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters.
3. These chemicals diffuse across the synapse (the gap) and bind with receptor
molecules on the membrane of the next neuron.
4. The receptor molecules on the second neuron bind only to the specific
chemicals released from the first neuron. This stimulates the second neuron
to transmit the electrical impulse.

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Eye structure and function

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Iris reflex

Circular Muscles

In dim light the radial muscles contract and the circular muscles relax. This makes the iris
narrower and the pupil dilates.

In bright light the circular muscles contract and the radial muscles relax. This makes the iris
wider and the pupil constricts.

This is a reflex arc. The light intensity is detected by the retina and the effectors are the muscles
of the iris.

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Accommodation
The changes that take place in the eye which allow us to see objects at different
distances are called accommodation.

Focusing on an object far away, e.g. looking at a distant tree

Light rays entering eye are almost parallel when they reach the cornea so the lens
does not need to refract them much to focus light onto the retina. They eye does
this by:
• Relaxing ciliary muscles
• Meaning suspensory ligaments are therefore pulled tight.
• Lens is pulled thin and has a less convex shape.
• Therefore there is less refraction of light.

Focusing on an object close up, e.g. reading a book

Light rays entering eye are spreading out (diverging) so the lens needs to refract the
light to ensure it focusses onto the retina. The eye does this by:
• Contracting the ciliary muscles
• Meaning suspensory ligaments are therefore slack.
• Lens is not stretched out so becomes thicker with more is more convex shape
• Therefore there is more refraction of light.

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Review tasks - nerves & eye
Label the diagrams

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PPQ - nerves
1. The diagram shows an animal cell called a neurone.

(a) Neurones are involved in the reflex arc that helps humans respond to stimuli.
The diagram shows a reflex arc with parts labelled A, B, C, D and E.
The arrows show the direction of the nerve impulse.

(i) Complete the table by naming each part of the reflex arc.
One has been done for you
(4)

(ii) There is a small gap between neurone B and neurone C.

What is the name of the small gaps between neurones?
(1)

(b) Nerve impulses can travel along neurones at 120 m/s.

The distance between the spinal cord and the foot of a human is 90 cm.
Calculate the time, in seconds, that it would take a nerve impulse to travel from the spinal cord to the
foot of this human.
Show your working.
(2)

time = ........................................................... Seconds

(Total for question = 7 marks)

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PPQ - eye 1

The diagram shows a section through the human eye. Different parts of the eye have been
labelled A to G.

The table lists some health problems that affect the eye and describes how they are caused.

(a) Complete the table by choosing the correct label letter for the part of the eye linked with
each health problem. The first one has been done for you (4)

(Total for question = 4 marks)

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PPQ - eye 2
The diagram shows the difference in the pupil diameter of the eye in bright light and
after moving into dim light. The difference is caused by a reflex action.

(a) The table gives descriptions of parts of the reflex arc involved with the reflex action.

Complete the table by naming each part.

One has been done for you.

(3)

(b) Explain how the lens changes when you view a near object.
(4)

(Total for question = 7 marks)

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 Hormones
As you will know the body uses a system of nerves (the nervous system) to pass on
information quickly around the body. The body also uses another system called the
Endocrine System. This system uses proteins, called hormones, that are released into the
blood stream by glands and target specific cells in the body. The table below compares the
two systems;

Endocrine Nervous
Speed of action Slow (except adrenaline) Fast
Type of message Chemical Electrical impulse
Method sent Via the blood – dissolved in the Along neurones
plasma
Response to the Only target cells respond even Message sent directly to a muscle
message though the message is sent all or a gland – not all over body
over the body
Role in body Controls long term processes Used when a fast response is
such as reproduction and growth needed

The diagram below shows the major glands in the human body that you will need to know!

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Hormone function
Humans produce many hormones that act on many different cells and result in
many different actions. The table below summarises the ones you need to know:
Gland Hormone Function
Pancreas Insulin Causes liver and muscles to take up glucose and convert it
to glycogen for storage
Pituitary ADH (anti- diuretic Reduces the amount of water lost in urine
gland hormone)
Ovaries Oestrogen Stimulates uterus lining to develop and the development of
secondary female characteristics
Ovaries Progesterone Maintains uterus lining and controls the development of
secondary female characteristics
Testes Testosterone Stimulates development of male secondary sexual
characteristics
Adrenal Adrenaline Increases heart and breathing rate for fight, fright or flight
gland
Pituitary FSH Stimulates an egg to mature in the ovary
gland
Pituitary LH Stimulates the release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation)
gland

E.g. Insulin
Insulin is a hormone released by the pancreas that controls the level of glucose in
the blood. When the blood sugar level is too high for too long vision can be blurry
and severe weight loss can occur.

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Homeostasis
Enzymes are crucial part of all living organisms and as you know they are very
sensitive to their surroundings. Therefore all living organisms need to keep their
internal conditions the same. This is called homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment e.g. body water

content, body temperature and blood sugar level.

You will need to know the above three examples in depth. We have covered blood
sugar level on the previous page.

In humans and other mammals a region of the brain called the hypothalamus
monitors the temperature of the blood.

If it detects a change in the temperature of the blood flowing through it, it sends
signals via neurones to other organs of the body, which will bring the temperature
of the blood back to its normal level.

The main ways the body controls the temperature are:

a. sweating
b. shivering
c. controlling heat loss by controlling the amount of blood which flows near
the surface of the skin

The skin plays a vital role in maintaining the temperature of the blood. In fact, the
human skin has a number of functions related to the fact that it forms the outer
surface of the body.

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Thermoregulation
Vasoconstriction

Process Explanation Effect

Hairs stand on The hairs trap a layer of air which, like a seals blubber Less heat lost
end provides insulation for conduction of heat.
Less sweat Less sweat is released therefore less heat lost via Less heat lost
released evaporation.
Vasoconstriction Arterioles supplying the capillaries near the surface of Less heat lost
the skin get narrower– they constrict. Less blood will
flow through capillaries near the surface of the skin,
therefore less heat will be lost by radiation.

Vasodilation

Process Explanation Effect

Hairs lie flat Hairs lie flat and therefore an insulating layer of air is not More heat lost
formed.
More sweat is Sweat isn't cold – the sweat is secreted at normal body More heat lost
released temperature. When the sweat evaporates, heat energy is
taken away from the skin as evaporation of water requires
energy.
Vasodilation Arterioles supplying the capillaries near the surface of the More heat lost
skin get wider – they dilate. More blood will flow through
capillaries near the surface of the skin, therefore more heat
will be lost by radiation.

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 Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the
regulation of water
levels within the body to
keep to it rising or falling
too much.

Water levels can be

changed by adjusting the
permeability of the
collecting duct in the
nephron (in the kidney).

1. At different times your body

will need to reabsorbed
different amounts of water. For
instance after exercise your
body will want to retain as
much water as possible because
you will have released a large
amount through sweat. Your
body controls this using a
hormone called Anti Diuretic
Hormone (ADH).

An area in your brain called the

Hypothalamus monitors the
level of water in your blood. If
To Bladder you need to reabsorb more it
tells the Pituitary Gland to
release more ADH.

2. As ADH is a hormone it is carried in the blood. The collecting duct is surrounded by

capillaries. The ADH diffuses out of the blood and binds with receptors on the surface
of the collecting duct cells. If ADH binds this triggers the wall of the collecting duct to
become more permeable to water. Therefore more water is reabsorbed into the
blood. Less urine is produced; it is more concentrated and darker coloured.

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Plant responses
Like animals, plants sense and respond to changes in their environment. Animals can
respond quickly by moving, some plants – like the Venus Fly Trap – can respond quickly.
However, most plants do not respond quickly – they respond slowly by changing their
rate of growth.

Tropisms
Plants can respond to a stimulus such as light. Plants placed near a window will grow
towards the light.

The growth of a plant towards a directional stimulus is called a tropism.

Phototropisms are growth responses to light from one direction. Growth towards the
light it is called a positive phototropism. The hormone, Auxin, that controls this growth
is found in the tip of the stem.

The tip of the shoot produces the auxin, which diffuses down the shoot to cause
elongation (lengthening) of cells. When light intensity is higher on one side of the stem,
auxins build up on the shaded side. This causes the cells on the shaded side to elongate
more; as a result the shoot bends towards the light.

A - tips are cut off, therefore no growth

B- Tips covered. Therefore the stem grows directly upwards as no light reaches the tip.
C - Stem grows towards the light, this is called positive phototropism

Another example of plant tropism is

geotropism. This is the growth
towards or away from gravity.
Roots are positively geotropic.

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Review tasks - hormones

Name the gland and hormone produced

Label these experiments - what do they tell you about tropisms?

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PPQ - ADH
1. One of the characteristics of living organisms is the ability to respond to a change in
their surroundings.

In mammals, such as humans, responses are controlled by nervous or hormonal communication.

(a) ADH is an example of a hormone.
(i) Where is ADH produced?
(1)

(ii) Describe the effects of ADH in the body.

(3)
(b) Nervous communication differs from hormonal communication.
State three ways that nervous communication differs from hormonal communication.
(3)

(c) The photograph shows a flower called a dandelion.

If a person picks this flower and then licks their fingers, they will want to urinate.
This is because the plant produces a chemical called a diuretic that affects the regulation of the
water content of the blood.
Suggest how this diuretic causes more urine to be produced.
(5)
(Total for question = 12 marks)

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PPQ - thermoregulation

The table shows the results of an investigation into the rate of sweating of a person when
resting or running at different air temperatures.

(a) Suggest why the investigation was carried out with the same person resting and running
(1)

(b) Compare the effect of increasing air temperature on sweat production when resting and
when running (3)

(c) Suggest why the rate of sweating changes when a person does exercise, such as
running (4)

(d) Suggest a method that you could use to measure the rate of sweating (3)

(Total for question = 11 marks)

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