Mathema'cal Methods (Version 8.

4)
Methods
Unit 2

Ra'onale
Mathema)cs is the study of order, rela)on and pa7ern. From its origins in coun)ng and
measuring it has evolved in highly sophis)cated and elegant ways to become the language now
used to describe much of the modern world.

Ra'onale/Aims
Mathema)cs is the study of order, rela)on and pa7ern. From its origins in coun)ng and
measuring it has evolved in highly sophis)cated and elegant ways to become the language now
used to describe much of the modern world. Sta)s)cs is concerned with collec)ng, analysing,
modelling and interpre)ng data in order to inves)gate and understand real-world phenomena
and solve problems in context. Together, mathema)cs and sta)s)cs provide a framework for
thinking and a means of communica)on that is powerful, logical, concise and precise.
The major themes of Mathema)cal Methods are calculus and sta)s)cs. They include as necessary
prerequisites studies of algebra, func)ons and their graphs, and probability. They are developed
systema)cally, with increasing levels of sophis)ca)on and complexity. Calculus is essen)al for
developing an understanding of the physical world because many of the laws of science are
rela)onships involving rates of change. Sta)s)cs is used to describe and analyse phenomena
involving uncertainty and varia)on. For these reasons this subject provides a founda)on for
further studies in disciplines in which mathema)cs and sta)s)cs have important roles. It is also
advantageous for further studies in the health and social sciences. In summary, the subject
Mathema)cal Methods is designed for students whose future pathways may involve mathema)cs
and sta)s)cs and their applica)ons in a range of disciplines at the ter)ary level.
For all content areas of Mathema)cal Methods, the proficiency strands of the F-10 curriculum
are s)ll applicable and should be inherent in students’ learning of this subject. These strands are
Understanding, Fluency, Problem solving and Reasoning, and they are both essen)al and
mutually reinforcing. For all content areas, prac)ce allows students to achieve fluency in skills,
such as calcula)ng deriva)ves and integrals, or solving quadra)c equa)ons, and frees up working
memory for more complex aspects of problem solving. The ability to transfer skills to solve
problems based on a wide range of applica)ons is a vital part of mathema)cs in this subject.
Because both calculus and sta)s)cs are widely applicable as models of the world around us, there
is ample opportunity for problem solving throughout this subject.
Mathema)cal Methods is structured over four units. The topics in Unit 1 build on students’
mathema)cal experience. The topics ‘Func)ons and graphs’, ‘Trigonometric func)ons’ and
‘Coun)ng and probability’ all follow on from topics in the F-10 curriculum from the strands,
Number and Algebra, Measurement and Geometry and Sta)s)cs and Probability. In
Mathema)cal Methods there is a progression of content and applica)ons in all areas. For
example, in Unit 2 differen)al calculus is introduced, and then further developed in Unit 3 where
integral calculus is introduced. Discrete probability distribu)ons are introduced in Unit 3, and
then con)nuous probability distribu)ons and an introduc)on to sta)s)cal inference conclude
Unit 4.

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Aims
Mathema)cal Methods aims to develop students’:
• understanding of concepts and techniques drawn from algebra, the study of func)ons,
calculus, probability and sta)s)cs
• ability to solve applied problems using concepts and techniques drawn from algebra,
func)ons, calculus, probability and sta)s)cs
• reasoning in mathema)cal and sta)s)cal contexts and interpreta)on of mathema)cal and
sta)s)cal informa)on including ascertaining the reasonableness of solu)ons to problems
• capacity to communicate in a concise and systema)c manner using appropriate
mathema)cal and sta)s)cal language
• capacity to choose and use technology appropriately and efficiently.

Links to Founda'on to Year 10

In Mathema)cal Methods, there is a strong emphasis on mutually reinforcing proficiencies in
Understanding, Fluency, Problem solving and Reasoning. Students gain fluency in a variety of
mathema)cal and sta)s)cal skills, including algebraic manipula)ons, construc)ng and
interpre)ng graphs, calcula)ng deriva)ves and integrals, applying probabilis)c models,
es)ma)ng probabili)es and parameters from data, and using appropriate technologies. Achieving
fluency in skills such as these allows students to concentrate on more complex aspects of problem
solving. In order to study Mathema)cal Methods, it is desirable that students complete topics
from 10A. The knowledge and skills from the following content descrip)ons from 10A are highly
recommended for the study of Mathema)cal Methods:
• ACMNA264: Define ra)onal and irra)onal numbers, and perform opera)ons with surds
and frac)onal indices
• ACMNA269: Factorise monic and non-monic quadra)c expressions, and solve a wide
range of quadra)c equa)ons derived from a variety of contexts
• ACMSP278: Calculate and interpret the mean and standard devia)on of data, and use
these to compare datasets.

Representa'on of General capabili'es

The seven general capabili)es of Literacy, Numeracy, Informa0on and Communica0on
technology (ICT) capability, Cri0cal and crea0ve thinking, Personal and social capability, Ethical
understanding, and Intercultural understanding are iden)fied where they offer opportuni)es to
add depth and richness to student learning. Teachers will find opportuni)es to incorporate
explicit teaching of the capabili)es depending on their choice of learning ac)vi)es.
Literacy in Mathema'cs
In the senior years these literacy skills and strategies enable students to express, interpret, and
communicate complex mathema)cal informa)on, ideas and processes. Mathema)cs provides a
specific and rich context for students to develop their ability to read, write, visualise and talk
about complex situa)ons involving a range of mathema)cal ideas. Students can apply and further
develop their literacy skills and strategies by shi^ing between verbal, graphic, numerical and
symbolic forms of represen)ng problems in order to formulate, understand and solve problems
and communicate results. This process of transla)on across different systems of representa)on

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is essen)al for complex mathema)cal reasoning and expression. Students learn to communicate
their findings in different ways, using mul)ple systems of representa)on and data displays to
illustrate the rela)onships they have observed or constructed.
Numeracy in Mathema'cs
The students who undertake this subject will con)nue to develop their numeracy skills at a more
sophis)cated level than in Years F to 10. This subject contains financial applica)ons of
Mathema)cs that will assist students to become literate consumers of investments, loans and
superannua)on products. It also contains sta)s)cs topics that will equip students for the ever-
increasing demands of the informa)on age. Students will also learn about the probability of
certain events occurring and will therefore be well equipped to make informed decisions.
ICT in Mathema'cs
In the senior years students use ICT both to develop theore)cal mathema)cal understanding and
to apply mathema)cal knowledge to a range of problems. They use so^ware aligned with areas
of work and society with which they may be involved such as for sta)s)cal analysis, algorithm
genera)on, data representa)on and manipula)on, and complex calcula)on. They use digital tools
to make connec)ons between mathema)cal theory, prac)ce and applica)on; for example, to use
data, to address problems, and to operate systems in authen)c situa)ons.
Cri'cal and crea've thinking in Mathema'cs
Students compare predic)ons with observa)ons when evalua)ng a theory. They check the extent
to which their theory-based predic)ons match observa)ons. They assess whether, if observa)ons
and predic)ons don't match, it is due to a flaw in theory or method of applying the theory to
make predic)ons – or both. They revise, or reapply their theory more skilfully, recognising the
importance of self-correc)on in the building of useful and accurate theories and making accurate
predic)ons.
Personal and social capability in Mathema'cs
In the senior years students develop personal and social competence in Mathema)cs through
secng and monitoring personal and academic goals, taking ini)a)ve, building adaptability,
communica)on, teamwork and decision-making.
The elements of personal and social competence relevant to Mathema)cs mainly include the
applica)on of mathema)cal skills for their decision-making, life-long learning, ci)zenship and
self-management. In addi)on, students will work collabora)vely in teams and independently as
part of their mathema)cal explora)ons and inves)ga)ons.
Ethical undertanding in Mathema'cs
In the senior years students develop ethical understanding in Mathema)cs through decision-
making connected with ethical dilemmas that arise when engaged in mathema)cal calcula)on
and the dissemina)on of results and the social responsibility associated with teamwork and
a7ribu)on of input.
The areas relevant to Mathema)cs include issues associated with ethical decision-making as
students work collabora)vely in teams and independently as part of their mathema)cal
explora)ons and inves)ga)ons. Acknowledging errors rather than denying findings and/or
evidence involves resilience and examined ethical behaviour. Students develop increasingly
advanced communica)on, research, and presenta)on skills to express viewpoints.
Intercultural understanding in Mathema'cs

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Students understand Mathema)cs as a socially constructed body of knowledge that uses
universal symbols but has its origin in many cultures. Students understand that some languages
make it easier to acquire mathema)cal knowledge than others. Students also understand that
there are many culturally diverse forms of mathema)cal knowledge, including diverse
rela)onships to number and that diverse cultural spa)al abili)es and understandings are shaped
by a person’s environment and language.

Structure of Mathema'cal Methods

Mathema)cal Methods is organised into four units. The topics broaden students’ mathema)cal
experience and provide different scenarios for incorpora)ng mathema)cal arguments and
problem solving. The units provide a blending of algebraic and geometric thinking. In this subject
there is a progression of content, applica)ons, level of sophis)ca)on and abstrac)on. The
probability and sta)s)cs topics lead to an introduc)on to sta)s)cal inference.
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3
Func)ons and graphs Exponen)al func)ons Further differen)a)on
Trigonometric func)ons Arithme)c and geometric sequences and series Integrals
Coun)ng and probability Introduc)on to differen)al calculus Discrete random variables
Units
Unit 1 begins with a review of the basic algebraic concepts and techniques required for a
successful introduc)on to the study of func)ons and calculus. Simple rela)onships between
variable quan))es are reviewed, and these are used to introduce the key concepts of a func)on
and its graph. The study of probability and sta)s)cs begins in this unit with a review of the
fundamentals of probability, and the introduc)on of the concepts of condi)onal probability and
independence. The study of the trigonometric func)ons begins with a considera)on of the unit
circle using degrees and the trigonometry of triangles and its applica)on. Radian measure is
introduced, and the graphs of the trigonometric func)ons are examined and their applica)ons in
a wide range of secngs are explored.
In Unit 2, exponen)al func)ons are introduced and their proper)es and graphs examined.
Arithme)c and geometric sequences and their applica)ons are introduced and their recursive
defini)ons applied. Rates and average rates of change are introduced, and this is followed by the
key concept of the deriva)ve as an ‘instantaneous rate of change’. These concepts are reinforced
numerically (by calcula)ng difference quo)ents), geometrically (as slopes of chords and
tangents), and algebraically. This first calculus topic concludes with deriva)ves of polynomial
func)ons, using simple applica)ons of the deriva)ve to sketch curves, calculate slopes and
equa)ons of tangents, determine instantaneous veloci)es, and solve op)misa)on problems.
In Unit 3, the study of calculus con)nues by introducing the deriva)ves of exponen)al and
trigonometric func)ons and their applica)ons, as well as some basic differen)a)on techniques
and the concept of a second deriva)ve, its meaning and applica)ons. The aim is to demonstrate
to students the beauty and power of calculus and the breadth of its applica)ons. The unit includes
integra)on, both as a process that reverses differen)a)on and as a way of calcula)ng areas. The

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fundamental theorem of calculus as a link between differen)a)on and integra)on is emphasised.
Discrete random variables are introduced, together with their uses in modelling random
processes involving chance and varia)on. The purpose here is to develop a framework for
sta)s)cal inference.
In Unit 4, the logarithmic func)on and its deriva)ve are studied. Con)nuous random variables
are introduced and their applica)ons examined. Probabili)es associated with con)nuous
distribu)ons are calculated using definite integrals. In this unit students are introduced to one of
the most important parts of sta)s)cs, namely sta)s)cal inference, where the goal is to es)mate
an unknown parameter associated with a popula)on using a sample of that popula)on. In this
unit, inference is restricted to es)ma)ng propor)ons in two-outcome popula)ons. Students will
already be familiar with many examples of these types of popula)ons.
Organisa'on of achievement standards
The achievement standards in Mathema)cs have been organised into two dimensions: ‘Concepts
and Techniques’ and ‘Reasoning and Communica)on’. These two dimensions reflect students’
understanding and skills in the study of mathema)cs.
Senior secondary achievement standards have been wri7en for each Australian Curriculum senior
secondary subject. The achievement standards provide an indica)on of typical performance at
five different levels (corresponding to grades A to E) following the comple)on of study of senior
secondary Australian Curriculum content for a pair of units. They are broad statements of
understanding and skills that are best read and understood in conjunc)on with the relevant unit
content. They are structured to reflect key dimensions of the content of the relevant learning
area. They will be eventually accompanied by illustra)ve and annotated samples of student work/
performance/ responses.
The achievement standards will be refined empirically through an analysis of samples of student
work and responses to assessment tasks: they cannot be maintained a priori without reference
to actual student performance. Inferences can be drawn about the quality of student learning on
the basis of observable differences in the extent, complexity, sophis)ca)on and generality of the
understanding and skills typically demonstrated by students in response to well-designed
assessment ac)vi)es and tasks.
In the short term, achievement standards will inform assessment processes used by curriculum,
assessment and cer)fying authori)es for course offerings based on senior secondary Australian
Curriculum content.
ACARA has made reference to a common syntax (as a guide, not a rule) in construc)ng the
achievement standards across the learning areas. The common syntax that has guided
development is as follows:
1. Given a specified context (as described in the curriculum content)
2. With a defined level of consistency/accuracy (the assump)on that each level describes
what the student does well, competently, independently, consistently)
3. Students perform a specified ac)on (described through a verb)
4. In rela)on to what is valued in the curriculum (specified as the object or subject)
5. With a defined degree of sophis)ca)on, difficulty, complexity (described as an indica)on
of quality)
Terms such as ‘analyse’ and ‘describe’ have been used to specify par)cular ac)on but these can
have everyday meanings that are quite general. ACARA has therefore associated these terms with

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specific meanings that are defined in the senior secondary achievement standards glossary and
used precisely and consistently across subject areas.
Role of technology
It is assumed that students will be taught the Senior Secondary Australian Curriculum:
Mathema)cs subjects with an extensive range of technological applica)ons and techniques. If
appropriately used, these have the poten)al to enhance the teaching and learning of
mathema)cs. However, students also need to con)nue to develop skills that do not depend on
technology. The ability to be able to choose when or when not to use some form of technology
and to be able to work flexibly with technology are important skills in these subjects.

Achievement standards
Concepts and Techniques (Units 1 and 2)
A
• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs in rou)ne and
non-rou)ne problems in a variety of contexts
• selects and applies techniques in func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs to solve rou)ne and
non-rou)ne problems in a variety of contexts
• develops, selects and applies mathema)cal and sta)s)cal models in rou)ne and non-
rou)ne problems in a variety of contexts
• uses digital technologies effec)vely to graph, display and organise mathema)cal and
sta)s)cal informa)on and to solve a range of rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems in a
variety of contexts
B
• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs in rou)ne and
non-rou)ne problems
• selects and applies techniques in func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs to solve rou)ne and
non-rou)ne problems
• selects and applies mathema)cal and sta)s)cal models in rou)ne and non-rou)ne
problems
• uses digital technologies appropriately to graph, display and organise mathema)cal and
sta)s)cal informa)on and to solve a range of rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems
C
• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs that apply to
rou)ne problems
• selects and applies techniques in func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs to solve rou)ne
problems
• applies mathema)cal and sta)s)cal models in rou)ne problems
• uses digital technologies to graph, display and organise mathema)cal and sta)s)cal
informa)on to solve rou)ne problems
D
• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of simple func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs
• uses simple techniques in func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs in rou)ne problems

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 • demonstrates familiarity with mathema)cal and sta)s)cal models
• uses digital technologies to display some mathema)cal and sta)s)cal informa)on in
rou)ne problems
E
• demonstrates limited familiarity with concepts of simple func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs
• uses simple techniques in a structured context
• demonstrates limited familiarity with mathema)cal or sta)s)cal models
• uses digital technologies for arithme)c calcula)ons and to display limited mathema)cal
and sta)s)cal informa)on

Reasoning and Communica'on

A
• represents func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in
rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems in a variety of contexts
• communicates mathema)cal and sta)s)cal judgments and arguments, which are succinct
and reasoned, using appropriate language
• interprets the solu)ons to rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems in a variety of contexts
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solu)ons to rou)ne and non-rou)ne
problems in a variety of contexts
• iden)fies and explains the validity and limita)ons of models used when developing
solu)ons to rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems
B
• represents func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in
rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems
• communicates mathema)cal and sta)s)cal judgments and arguments, which are clear
and reasoned, using appropriate language
• interprets the solu)ons to rou)ne and non-rou)ne problems
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solu)ons to rou)ne and non-rou)ne
problems
• iden)fies and explains the limita)ons of models used when developing solu)ons to
rou)ne problems
C
• represents func)ons, calculus and sta)s)cs in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in
rou)ne problems
• communicates mathema)cal and sta)s)cal arguments using appropriate language
• interprets the solu)ons to rou)ne problems
• describes the reasonableness of results and solu)ons to rou)ne problems
• iden)fies the limita)ons of models used when developing solu)ons to rou)ne problems
D
• represents simple func)ons and distribu)ons in numerical, graphical or symbolic form in
rou)ne problems
• communicates simple mathema)cal and sta)s)cal informa)on using appropriate
language

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 • describes solu)ons to rou)ne problems
• describes the appropriateness of the result of calcula)ons
• iden)fies the limita)ons of simple models used
E
• represents limited mathema)cal or sta)s)cal informa)on in a structured context
• communicates simple mathema)cal and sta)s)cal informa)on
• iden)fies solu)ons to rou)ne problems
• describes with limited familiarity the appropriateness of the results of calcula)ons
• iden)fies simple models