ISC Class 12 Physics — High-Yield Formula Notes
Electrostatics · Current Electricity · Magnetism | Compact Revision Guide (CISCE Pattern)
1. Electric Charges & Fields
1.1 Coulomb's Law
F = (1/4πε₀) · q₁q₂/r²
Symbol Meaning SI Unit
F Force between two point charges N
q₁, q₂ Point charges C
r Distance between charges m
ε₀ Permittivity of free space = 8.854×10⁻¹² C²N⁻¹m⁻² —
1/4πε₀ = 9×10⁹ Nm²C⁻². Force is repulsive for like charges, attractive for unlike; always acts along line joining charges (central force).
1.2 Electric Field
Formula Meaning / Condition
E = F/q₀ Field = force per unit positive test charge (q₀ → 0)
E = (1/4πε₀)·q/r² Field due to a point charge q at distance r
E = (1/4πε₀)·p/r³ (axial) Dipole field on axial line, far point (r >> a)
E = (1/4πε₀)·p/r³ (equatorial) Half of axial value; direction opposite to p
Axial field is 2× equatorial field for same r, same dipole. Dipole moment p = q×(2a), directed negative→positive.
1.3 Electric Dipole in Uniform Field
τ = p × E = pE sinθ
W = pE(cosθ₁ − cosθ₂) — work done rotating dipole from θ₁ to θ₂
U = −pE cosθ = −p·E — potential energy; minimum (stable) at θ=0°
1.4 Gauss's Law
Φ = ∮E·dA = q_enc/ε₀
Case Field Formula
Infinite line charge E = λ/2πε₀r
Infinite plane sheet E = σ/2ε₀
Charged conductor surface E = σ/ε₀
Between two plates (capacitor) E = σ/ε₀
Uniformly charged sphere (outside) E = (1/4πε₀)·q/r²
Uniformly charged sphere (inside, solid) E = (1/4πε₀)·qr/R³
Choose Gaussian surface matching symmetry (spherical/cylindrical/pancake). E is zero inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium.
2. Electrostatic Potential, Potential Energy & Capacitance
2.1 Electric Potential
Formula Condition / Note
V = (1/4πε₀)·q/r Potential due to point charge; V=0 at r=∞
V = W/q₀ Work done per unit charge bringing it from infinity
E = −dV/dr Field = negative potential gradient
V(axial) = (1/4πε₀)·p/r² Dipole potential, axial point
V(equatorial) = 0 Every point on equatorial line is at zero potential
2.2 Potential Energy of System of Charges
Two charges: U = (1/4πε₀)·q₁q₂/r
System in external field: U = qV
Dipole in field: U = −pE cosθ
2.3 Capacitance
C = Q/V
SI unit: farad (F) = C/V
Configuration Formula
Parallel plate (vacuum) C = ε₀A/d
Parallel plate (dielectric, fully filled) C = Kε₀A/d
Partially filled dielectric (thickness t) C = ε₀A / [d−t+(t/K)]
Spherical capacitor C = 4πε₀ab/(b−a)
Isolated sphere C = 4πε₀R
K = dielectric constant (relative permittivity), unitless, K≥1. Inserting dielectric always increases C.
2.4 Combination of Capacitors
Series Parallel
1/C = 1/C₁+1/C₂+... C = C₁+C₂+...
Same Q on each; V divides Same V on each; Q divides
2.5 Energy Stored in Capacitor
U = ½QV = ½CV² = Q²/2C
Energy density: u = ½ε₀E² (energy per unit volume between plates)
Common ISC trap: if battery disconnected before inserting dielectric → Q constant, V decreases. If battery stays connected → V constant, Q increases.
3. Electric Resistance, Ohm's Law & D.C. Circuits
3.1 Ohm's Law & Resistivity
Formula Meaning / Condition
V = IR Holds at constant temperature (Ohmic conductor)
R = ρl/A ρ = resistivity (Ωm), l = length (m), A = area (m²)
j = σE = I/A Current density; σ = conductivity = 1/ρ
I = neAv_d v_d = drift velocity; n = free electron density/m³
v_d = eEτ/m = eVτ/(ml) τ = relaxation time between collisions
ρ = m/(ne²τ) Resistivity in terms of microscopic quantities
3.2 Temperature Dependence
R_T = R₀(1 + αΔT)
α (temp. coefficient) is positive for metals (R increases with T), negative for semiconductors/insulators.
3.3 Combination of Resistors
Series Parallel
R = R₁+R₂+... 1/R = 1/R₁+1/R₂+...
Same I; V divides Same V; I divides
3.4 Electrical Power & Energy
P = VI = I²R = V²/R — electrical power dissipated (Watt)
H = I²Rt — Joule heating (in Joules, or /4.18 for calories)
1 unit (kWh) = 3.6×10⁶ J
3.5 EMF, Internal Resistance & Kirchhoff's Laws
ε = I(R + r) → V = ε − Ir
Symbol Meaning
ε EMF of cell (V)
r Internal resistance (Ω)
V Terminal potential difference (V)
KCL (junction rule): ΣI_in = ΣI_out — conservation of charge
KVL (loop rule): ΣΔV = 0 around any closed loop — conservation of energy
Sign convention: EMF is +ve if traversed − to + inside cell; IR drop is −ve in direction of current flow.
3.6 Cells in Combination (n identical cells, EMF ε, internal resistance r each)
Grouping Effective EMF Effective Internal R Best when
Series (n cells) nε nr External R >> r
Parallel (n cells) ε r/n External R << r
3.7 Wheatstone Bridge
Balanced condition: P/Q = R/S
No current flows through galvanometer when bridge is balanced. Used as the working principle of a meter bridge / post office box.
3.8 Potentiometer
Potential gradient: k = V/L (V per unit length)
Comparing EMFs: ε₁/ε₂ = l₁/l₂ (balancing lengths)
Potentiometer measures EMF directly (no current drawn at balance) — more accurate than a voltmeter.
4. Moving Charges & Magnetism
4.1 Force on Moving Charge / Current
Formula Condition
F = q(v × B) Lorentz force (magnetic part); F=qvB sinθ
F = q(E + v×B) Full Lorentz force (electric + magnetic)
F = IL × B = BIL sinθ Force on current-carrying conductor
F is always ⊥ to both v and B → does no work, only changes direction (speed unchanged in pure magnetic field).
4.2 Motion in Magnetic Field
Radius of circular path: r = mv/qB
Time period: T = 2πm/qB (independent of v — key exam point)
Cyclotron frequency: f = qB/2πm
4.3 Biot–Savart Law
dB = (μ₀/4π) · I(dl × r̂)/r²
Case Formula
Straight finite wire B = (μ₀I/4πd)(sinθ₁+sinθ₂)
Infinite straight wire B = μ₀I/2πd
Centre of circular loop (N turns) B = μ₀NI/2R
On axis of circular loop B = μ₀NIR²/2(R²+x²)^(3/2)
Inside solenoid (long) B = μ₀nI
Toroid B = μ₀NI/2πr
μ₀ = 4π×10⁻⁷ TmA⁻¹. n = turns per unit length for solenoid. Direction by right-hand thumb rule.
4.4 Ampere's Circuital Law
∮B·dl = μ₀I_enc
4.5 Force Between Parallel Currents
F/L = μ₀I₁I₂/2πd
Like currents (same direction) attract; unlike currents repel. Defines the SI ampere.
4.6 Torque on Current Loop (Magnetic Dipole)
Magnetic moment: m = NIA (A·m²)
Torque: τ = m × B = NIAB sinθ
4.7 Moving Coil Galvanometer
I = (k/NAB)·θ = Gθ
Ammeter conversion: shunt S = I_gG/(I−I_g), connected in parallel (low resistance)
Voltmeter conversion: series R = (V/I_g) − G, connected in series (high resistance)
G = galvanometer resistance, I_g = full-scale deflection current. Ideal ammeter → 0 resistance; ideal voltmeter → ∞ resistance.
5. Magnetism & Matter
5.1 Bar Magnet as Dipole
Formula Condition
B(axial) = (μ₀/4π)·2m/r³ Far point on axial line (r>>l)
B(equatorial) = (μ₀/4π)·m/r³ Far point on equatorial line; half of axial, opposite direction
τ = m × B = mB sinθ Torque on dipole in uniform field
U = −m·B = −mB cosθ Potential energy; min at θ=0 (stable)
5.2 Magnetic Field of Earth
B_H = horizontal component; B_V = vertical component
Dip angle: tanδ = B_V/B_H
Total field: B = √(B_H² + B_V²)
At magnetic equator δ=0; at magnetic poles δ=90°. Declination = angle between geographic & magnetic meridian.
5.3 Magnetisation & Susceptibility
Formula Meaning
H = B₀/μ₀ Magnetising field intensity (Am⁻¹)
M = m_net/V Magnetisation (net magnetic moment per volume)
χ = M/H Magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless)
B = μ₀(H+M) = μH Total field inside material
μ_r = 1+χ = μ/μ₀ Relative permeability
5.4 Classification of Magnetic Materials
Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
χ Small, negative Small, positive Large, positive
μ_r Slightly <1 Slightly >1 >>1
Field effect Repelled by B Weakly attracted Strongly attracted
Behaviour with T ~independent χ ∝ 1/T (Curie's law) Loses at Curie temp
Example Bi, Cu, H₂O Al, Na, O₂ Fe, Ni, Co
Curie's Law: χ = C/T. Above Curie temperature, ferromagnetic → paramagnetic.
5.5 Hysteresis (Qualitative)
Retentivity: residual B when H=0
Coercivity: reverse H needed to bring B to zero
Area of B-H loop = energy loss per cycle per unit volume
Permanent magnets: high retentivity + high coercivity (steel); Electromagnets: low coercivity (soft iron)