Landforms Notes

Class 9 Geography — Chapter 2: Landforms: Earth’s Living

Canvas

(Theme II: Shaping of the Earth’s Surface)

1. Plate Tectonics

The Earth’s outer shell (lithosphere) is broken into large and small plates that float and move over
a semi-liquid layer called the asthenosphere.
Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1912): All continents were once joined as a single
landmass called Pangaea, which later broke apart and drifted. Evidence: matching coastlines,
similar fossils, and matching rock layers across continents. Weakness: Wegener could not explain
what force caused the drift.
Seafloor Spreading Theory (Harry Hess & Robert Dietz, 1950s): Explained the missing
mechanism — new ocean floor is continuously created at mid-ocean ridges by volcanic activity; as
magma rises and hardens, it pushes older crust outward, spreading the sea floor. Supported by
magnetic striping patterns on the ocean floor.
Convection Current Theory: Heat rising from the Earth’s core creates circular convection
currents in the mantle — hot material rises, cooler material sinks — and this movement drags the
plates above it.
Modern Plate Tectonic Theory: Combines all the above ideas. Plate boundaries are of three
types:
Divergent – plates move apart
Convergent – plates collide
Transform – plates slide past each other
This theory explains earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain building, and ocean trench
formation.

2. Interior of the Earth

The Earth has a layered structure: Crust → Mantle → Core

Layer Details

Solid outer covering; 5–40 km thick; thicker under

Crust continents, thinner under oceans; made of varied rocks;
sustains life

Boundary separating crust from mantle (named after

Mohorovicic Discontinuity geologist Andrija Mohorovicic)

About 2,900 km thick; divided into upper and lower mantle;

Mantle
density increases with depth

Outer Core Mainly iron; in liquid state

Made of nickel and iron; solid due to extremely high

Inner Core pressure despite intense heat; together the core is about
 3,500 km thick and is the densest layer

Temperature rises roughly 1°C for every 32 metres of depth.

Because of iron and nickel in the core, scientists believe the Earth behaves like a giant magnet.

3. Weathering

Definition: The breaking down of exposed rocks into smaller pieces in situ (at the same place) is called weathering.

Factors influencing weathering: temperature/pressure changes, action of water freezing in cracks, wind-blown
sand acting like sandpaper, plant roots growing into cracks, and activity of animals/humans.

Types of Weathering

1. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering — Rocks break apart without any change in chemical composition.

Exfoliation: Repeated heating (expansion) by day and cooling (contraction) by night causes outer
rock layers to peel off — common in granite rocks.
Frost action: Water in rock cracks freezes, expands, and widens the cracks until the rock splits.

2. Chemical Weathering — Water or air chemically reacts with rock, dissolving soluble minerals (rock-salt,
limestone, sandstone), creating cavities, sinkholes, and caverns.

3. Biological Weathering — Plants and animals break rocks apart. Plant roots grow into cracks and widen them;
root secretions are acidic and dissolve rock material; burrowing animals and humans also contribute.

4. Erosion

Definition: The carrying away of weathered rock particles from one place to another is called erosion.

Carried out by rivers, rainwater, glaciers, sea waves, and wind.

Rate of erosion depends on: rainfall amount, temperature, slope of land, soil type, vegetation cover,
and land-use changes.
Over millions of years, weathering and erosion have reshaped mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains
— for example, the area where the Himalayas now stand was once covered by a sea called Tethys.

5. Mass Movements

Movements of loose material downhill under the pull of gravity. Common in hilly regions like Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir.

Landslide — Dry soil and rock fragments sliding down a steep slope.
Earth flow — Clay/silt soaked with water moving down a gentle slope.
Mud-flow — Water-saturated rock debris moving down channels on steep hillsides.

6. Agents of Denudation

Denudation means “making bare.” The main agents that wear down and carry away land surface material are:

1. Rivers — Carry broken rock material to lowlands; carve gorges and valleys.
2. Rainwater/Underground water — Seeps through rock cracks; can reappear as springs; in
limestone/salt areas it dissolves rock to form caves.
3. Ice/Glaciers — Moving ice masses that erode V-shaped valleys into U-shaped ones; melting glaciers
 give birth to rivers (e.g., Ganga and Yamuna).
4. Sea waves — Erode coastlines and deposit material elsewhere.
5. Wind — Most effective in deserts (e.g., Thar Desert, Sahara), removing loose dust and sand.

Role of Man: Deforestation, unchecked construction, factory effluents, and dumping of waste all degrade the land
surface.

7. Major Landforms of the Earth

(A) Mountains

High landmass with steep slopes, usually occurring in ranges (e.g., Himalayas, Alps, Rockies,
Andes).
Young mountains (Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies) — high with pointed peaks.
Old mountains (Aravalli, Appalachian) — low, rounded due to long erosion.
Types:
Fold Mountains — formed by folding of the crust due to internal compression (e.g., Himalayas,
Alps, Appalachians, Urals).
Block Mountains — formed when large land blocks are displaced vertically (e.g., Rhine Valley,
Vosges Mountains).
Volcanic Mountains — built up by volcanic activity (e.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Fuji).
Life is difficult here due to rocky terrain and harsh climate — sparsely populated.

(B) Plateaus

A broad, elevated, more-or-less level upland, also called a tableland; rugged and rocky surface.
Deccan Plateau (India) is a large example; Tibet Plateau is the world’s highest, called “Roof of the
World.”
Rich in mineral deposits but sparsely populated due to difficult terrain for roads, railways, canals.

(C) Plains

Flat, low-lying, extensive stretches of land (level, rolling, or undulating).

Mostly formed by rivers depositing silt, sand, and stones (e.g., Great Northern Plain of India by the
Ganga, Hwang-Ho Plain in China, Nile Valley Plain in Egypt).
Most suitable for human habitation; very fertile and thickly populated.

8. Work of the River (Three Stages)

(1) Upper Course (Mountain Stage)

Steep slope → fast-flowing water → strong erosion and transportation.

Landforms: gorges (narrow valley with steep walls in hard rock), V-shaped valleys (in soft rock
with heavy rain), waterfalls (sudden vertical drop — e.g., Niagara, Victoria, and the highest, Angel
Falls in Venezuela at ~980 m), and rapids/cascades (series of small jumps where both bed and
banks are rocky).

(2) Middle Course (Plain Stage)

Gentler slope → river slows, useful for navigation/irrigation.

Deposits alluvium on banks during floods → forms fertile flood plains.
River swings side to side forming large loops called meanders.
 Many towns develop along the banks here.

(3) Lower Course (Delta Stage)

Final stage before the river meets the sea; speed slows further, deposition dominates.
River splits into several channels called distributaries before entering the sea.
Forms a delta — fertile land made of deposited alluvium.

9. Glaciers

Mountain Glaciers — Move slowly down mountain valleys from peaks; melt at the edges to give
rise to rivers (e.g., Ganga, Yamuna); erode V-shaped valleys into U-shaped valleys.
Continental Glaciers — Much bigger, slower-moving ice sheets covering thousands of square
kilometres, typically found in Polar Regions.

10. Landforms and Disasters

(A) Earthquakes

Sudden shaking of the Earth’s surface due to release of built-up energy from tectonic movement.
Called a “sudden-onset hazard” since exact prediction remains impossible; over a million
earthquakes occur worldwide each year, but only a few dozen are seriously destructive.
Vulnerability factors: density of settlements, soil/rock type (loose, sedimentary, alluvial, and
windblown soils are riskier), steepness of slope, poorly built structures.
Typical effects: panic, physical damage (collapsed buildings, cracked roads/bridges/dams), public
health hazards (disease from polluted water, broken sewage lines), disrupted civic services, halted
economic activity, and fire hazards from ruptured gas/fuel lines.
India’s earthquake zones are mapped by the Bureau of Indian Standards according to intensity, to
guide construction rules.

Mitigation: - Structural: Earthquake-resistant engineered buildings; avoiding construction on soft or alluvial soil. -
Non-structural: Public awareness campaigns (causes, do’s and don’ts, area-risk awareness), training of
engineers/architects/relief workers, strict building codes and zoning laws, restoring vital lifelines (water, power,
hospitals) quickly after a quake.

(B) Landslides

Sudden movement of rock, earth, or debris down a slope under gravity.

Common in hilly terrain, along river banks, and in areas disturbed by construction, mining, or road-
cutting.
Major hazard zones: Himalayas, Western Ghats, and the Pooravanchal (North-Eastern) hill ranges.
Mostly occur without warning, though gradual ones can sometimes be noticed in advance.

Mitigation: - Drainage correction (preventing water-logging on slopes) - Engineered structures with strong
foundations - Retaining walls on slopes (common at hill stations like Shimla) - Vegetation cover/afforestation to bind
soil - Hazard mapping to avoid building in risk-prone zones - Public awareness generation

(C) Avalanches

A sudden, rapid flow of snow, ice, and sometimes rock down a mountain slope.
Causes: heavy snowfall, weak snow layers, sudden temperature changes, steep slopes (30°–45°),
human disturbance (skiing, construction), and earthquakes/vibrations.
Mitigation: early-warning/monitoring systems, deliberately triggering small controlled avalanches,
 protective structures (snow fences, barriers, diversion dams), avoiding construction in high-risk
zones, afforestation on slopes, and public training in avalanche safety.

(D) Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)

Sudden, massive release of water when a natural dam (ice or moraine) holding back a glacial lake
fails.
Causes: rapid glacier melting from climate change, weak/unstable moraine dams, ice
avalanches/landslides into the lake, earthquakes weakening the dam, heavy rainfall or rapid
snowmelt.
Mitigation: satellite monitoring and risk assessment, early warning sensors/alarms, controlled
drainage systems, strengthening natural dams, avoiding settlement in flood-prone downstream
areas, community awareness and evacuation planning.

(E) Duststorms

Strong winds lift large amounts of dust/sand from dry, bare soil, reducing visibility and harming
health, agriculture, and infrastructure.
Most common in arid/semi-arid regions, but also during drought or land degradation.
Causes: natural (drought, high temperatures, strong winds, sparse vegetation) and human-induced
(deforestation, overgrazing, poor farming practices, urbanisation, land clearing); climate change
intensifies the frequency.
Mitigation: afforestation as windbreaks, sustainable land management (crop rotation, controlled
grazing), early warning systems and weather forecasting, public awareness on protective measures,
and regional cooperation since duststorms cross borders.

Key Terms (Glossary)

Lithosphere – The hard, outermost layer of the Earth (crust + uppermost mantle).
Ridge – A long, narrow raised landform such as a chain of hills.
Geology – The branch of science studying the Earth’s rocks, structure, and processes.
Gorge – A deep, narrow valley with steep rocky sides cut by a river.
Convection – Transfer of heat through the movement of fluids caused by temperature/density
differences.
Weathering – Breakdown of rocks in situ by natural forces.
Erosion – Wearing away and carrying off of surface material by wind, water, or ice.
Glacier – A large, slow-moving mass of ice.
Seawave – Movement of ocean water surface caused by wind.
Plateau – A large, flat, elevated area rising sharply above surrounding land.
Valley – Low land between hills/mountains, often with a river flowing through.
Delta – Landform at a river’s mouth formed by deposited sand, silt, and clay.
Mitigation – Reducing the severity or impact of a disaster/risk.
Landslide – Sudden downward movement of rock, soil, and debris on a slope.
Avalanche – Rapid flow of snow, ice, and rocks down a mountain slope.