ale80571_appB_A9-A15.

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Appendix B
Complex Numbers

The ability to manipulate complex numbers is very handy in circuit

analysis and in electrical engineering in general. Complex numbers are
particularly useful in the analysis of ac circuits. Again, although cal-
culators and computer software packages are now available to manip-
ulate complex numbers, it is still advisable for a student to be familiar
with how to handle them by hand.

B.1 Representations of Complex

Numbers
A complex number z may be written in rectangular form as
z  x  jy (B.1)
where j  11; x is the real part of z while y is the imaginary part
of z; that is,
x  Re(z), y  Im(z) (B.2) The complex plane looks like the
The complex number z is shown plotted in the complex plane in two-dimensional curvilinear coordinate
space, but it is not.
Fig. B.1. Since j  11,
1 Im
 j z
j jy
j2  1 r
y
j3  j  j 2  j (B.3) 
j4  j2  j2  1 0 x Re
j5  j  j4  j Figure B.1
o Graphical representation of a
complex number.
j n4  j n
A second way of representing the complex number z is by speci-
fying its magnitude r and the angle u it makes with the real axis, as
Fig. B.1 shows. This is known as the polar form. It is given by
z  0z 0 lu  rlu (B.4)
where
y
r  2x2  y2, u  tan 1 (B.5a)
x
or
x  r cos u, y  r sin u (B.5b)
that is,
z  x  jy  rlu  r cos u  jr sin u (B.6)

A-9
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A-10 Appendix B Complex Numbers

In converting from rectangular to polar form using Eq. (B.5), we must

exercise care in determining the correct value of u. These are the four
possibilities:
y
z  x  jy, u  tan1 (1st Quadrant)
x
y
z  x  jy, u  180  tan 1 (2nd Quadrant)
x
(B.7)
1 y
z  x  jy, u  180  tan (3rd Quadrant)
x
y
z  x  jy, u  360  tan 1 (4th Quadrant)
x
assuming that x and y are positive.
In the exponential form, z  re ju so The third way of representing the complex z is the exponential
that dzd u  jre j u  jz. form:
z  re ju (B.8)
This is almost the same as the polar form, because we use the same
magnitude r and the angle u.
The three forms of representing a complex number are summa-
rized as follows.

z  x  jy, (x  r cos u, y  r sin u) Rectangular form

ar  2x2  y2, u  tan 1 b

y
z  rlu, Polar form
x

ar  2x2  y2, u  tan 1 b Exponential form

y
z  re ju,
x

(B.9)
The first two forms are related by Eqs. (B.5) and (B.6). In Section B.3
we will derive Euler’s formula, which proves that the third form is also
equivalent to the first two.

Example B.1 Express the following complex numbers in polar and exponential form:
(a) z1  6  j8, (b) z2  6  j8, (c) z3  6  j8, (d) z4  6  j8.

Solution:
Notice that we have deliberately chosen these complex numbers to fall
in the four quadrants, as shown in Fig. B.2.
(a) For z1  6  j8 (1st quadrant),
8
r1  262  82  10, u1  tan 1  53.13
6
Hence, the polar form is 10l53.13 and the exponential form is 10e j53.13.
(b) For z2  6  j8 (4th quadrant),
8
r2  262  (8)2  10, u2  360  tan 1  306.87
6
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Appendix B Complex Numbers A-11

so that the polar form is 10l306.87 and the exponential form is Im

z3 j8 z1
10e j306.87. The angle u2 may also be taken as 53.13, as shown in
Fig. B.2, so that the polar form becomes 10l53.13 and the j6
exponential form becomes 10ej53.13. r3 j4 3
r1
(c) For z3  6  j8 (2nd quadrant),
j2 1
4
8
r3  2(6)2  82  10, u3  180  tan 1  126.87 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 Re
6
−j2 2
Hence, the polar form is 10l126.87 and the exponential form −j4
r4 r2
is 10e j126.87.
−j6
(d) For z4  6  j8 (3rd quadrant),
z4 −j8 z2
1 8
r4  2(6)  (8)  10,
2 2
u4  180  tan  233.13 Figure B.2
6
For Example B.1.
so that the polar form is 10l233.13 and the exponential form
is 10e j233.13.

Convert the following complex numbers to polar and exponential forms: Practice Problem B.1
(a) z1  3  j4, (b) z2  5  j12, (c) z3  3  j9, (d) z4  7  j.

Answer: (a) 5l306.9, 5e j306.9, (b) 13l67.38, 13e j67.38,

(c) 9.487l251.6, 9.487e j251.6, (d) 7.071l171.9, 7.071e j171.9.

Convert the following complex numbers into rectangular form: Example B.2
(a) 12l60, (b) 50l285, (c) 8e j10, (d) 20ejp3.

Solution:
(a) Using Eq. (B.6),
12l60  12 cos(60)  j12 sin(60)  6  j10.39
Note that u  60 is the same as u  360  60  300.
(b) We can write
50l285  50 cos 285  j50 sin 285  12.94  j48.3
(c) Similarly,
8e j10  8 cos 10  j8 sin 10  7.878  j1.389
(d) Finally,
20ejp3  20 cos(p3)  j20 sin(p3)  10  j17.32

Find the rectangular form of the following complex numbers: Practice Problem B.2
(a) 8l210, (b) 40l305, (c) 10ej30, (d) 50e jp2.

Answer: (a) 6.928  j4, (b) 22.94  j32.77, (c) 8.66  j5, (d) j50.
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A-12 Appendix B Complex Numbers

B.2 Mathematical Operations

We have used lightface notation for
complex numbers—since they are Two complex numbers z1  x1  jy1 and z2  x2  jy2 are equal if
not time- or frequency-dependent— and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal,
whereas we use boldface notation
x1  x2, y1  y2 (B.10)
for phasors.
The complex conjugate of the complex number z  x  jy is
z*  x  jy  rlu  reju (B.11)
Thus, the complex conjugate of a complex number is found by replac-
ing every j by j.
Given two complex numbers z1  x1  jy1  r1lu1 and z2  x2 
jy2  r2lu2, their sum is
z1  z2  (x1  x2)  j( y1  y2) (B.12)
and their difference is
z1  z2  (x1  x2)  j( y1  y2) (B.13)
While it is more convenient to perform addition and subtraction of
complex numbers in rectangular form, the product and quotient of the
two complex numbers are best done in polar or exponential form. For
their product,
z1z2  r1r2lu1  u2 (B.14)
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
z1z2  (x1  jy1)(x2  jy2)
(B.15)
 (x1x2  y1y2)  j(x1y2  x2y1)
For their quotient,
z1 r1
 lu1  u2 (B.16)
z2 r2
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
z1 x1  jy1
 (B.17)
z2 x2  jy2
We rationalize the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and
denominator by z*2 .
z1 (x1  jy1)(x2  jy2) x1x2  y1y2 x2 y1  x1y2
  j 2 (B.18)
z2 (x2  jy2)(x2  jy2) x2  y2
2 2
x 2  y 22

Example B.3 If A  2  j5, B  4  j6, find: (a) A*(A  B), (b) (A  B)(A  B).

Solution:
(a) If A  2  j5, then A*  2  j5 and
A  B  (2  4)  j(5  6)  6  j
so that
A*(A  B)  (2  j5)(6  j)  12  j2  j30  5  7  j32
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Appendix B Complex Numbers A-13

(b) Similarly,
A  B  (2  4)  j(5  6)  2  j11
Hence,
AB 6j (6  j)(2  j11)
 
AB 2  j11 (2  j11)(2  j11)
12  j66  j2  11 23  j64
   0.184  j0.512
(2)  11
2 2
125

Given that C  3  j 7 and D  8  j, calculate: Practice Problem B.3

(a) (C  D*)(C  D*), (b) D2C*, (c) 2CD(C  D).

Answer: (a) 103  j26, (b) 5.19  j 6.776, (c) 6.045  j11.53.

Evaluate: Example B.4

(2  j5)(8e j10) j(3  j4)*
(a) (b)
2  j4  2l40 (1  j6)(2  j)2

Solution:
(a) Since there are terms in polar and exponential forms, it may be best
to express all terms in polar form:
2  j5  222  52ltan1 52  5.385l68.2
(2  j5)(8e j10)  (5.385l68.2)(8l10)  43.08l78.2
2  j4  2l40  2  j4  2 cos(40)  j2 sin(40)
 3.532  j2.714  4.454l37.54
Thus,
(2  j5)(8e j10) 43.08l78.2
  9.672l40.66
2  j4  2l40 4.454l37.54
(b) We can evaluate this in rectangular form, since all terms are in that
form. But
j(3  j4)*  j(3  j4)  4  j3
(2  j)2  4  j4  1  3  j4
(1  j6)(2  j)2  (1  j6)(3  j4)  3  4j  j18  24
 27  j14
Hence,
j(3  j4)* 4  j3 (4  j3)(27  j14)
 
(1  j6)(2  j) 2
27  j14 272  142
108  j56  j81  42
  0.1622  j0.027
925
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A-14 Appendix B Complex Numbers

Practice Problem B.4 Evaluate these complex fractions:

6l30  j5  3 (15  j7)(3  j2)* *
(a) (b) B R
1  j  2e j45
(4  j6)*(3l70)

Answer: (a) 3.387l5.615, (b) 2.759l287.6.

B.3 Euler’s Formula

Euler’s formula is an important result in complex variables. We derive
it from the series expansion of ex, cos u, and sin u. We know that
x2 x3 x4
ex  1  x    p (B.19)
2! 3! 4!
Replacing x by ju gives
u2 u3 u4
e ju  1  ju  j  p (B.20)
2! 3! 4!
Also,
u2 u4 u6
cos u  1    p
2! 4! 6!
(B.21)
u3 u5 u7
sin u  u    p
3! 5! 7!
so that
u2 u3 u4 u5
cos u  j sin u  1  ju  j  j p (B.22)
2! 3! 4! 5!
Comparing Eqs. (B.20) and (B.22), we conclude that

e ju  cos u  j sin u (B.23)

This is known as Euler’s formula. The exponential form of represent-

ing a complex number as in Eq. (B.8) is based on Euler’s formula.
From Eq. (B.23), notice that

cos u  Re(e ju), sin u  Im(e ju) (B.24)

and that
0e ju 0  2 cos2 u  sin2 u  1
Replacing u by u in Eq. (B.23) gives
eju  cos u  j sin u (B.25)
Adding Eqs. (B.23) and (B.25) yields

1
cos u  (e ju  eju) (B.26)
2
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Appendix B Complex Numbers A-15

Subtracting Eq. (B.25) from Eq. (B.23) yields

1 ju
sin u  (e  eju) (B.27)
2j

Useful Identities
The following identities are useful in dealing with complex numbers.
If z  x  jy  rlu, then
zz*  x2  y2  r2 (B.28)
2z  2x  jy  2re ju2
 2rlu2 (B.29)
z  (x  jy)  r
n n n
lnu  r n jnu
e  r (cos nu  j sin nu) (B.30)
n

z1n
 (x  jy)  r lun  2 p kn
1n 1n
(B.31)
k  0, 1, 2, p , n  1
ln(re ju)  ln r  ln e ju  ln r  ju  j2k p
(B.32)
(k  integer)
1
 j
j
e  jp  1
(B.33)
e  j2p  1
e jp2  j
ejp2  j
Re(e(aj)t )  Re(eate jt )  eat cos t
(B.34)
Im(e(aj)t )  Im(eate jt)  eat sin t

If A  6  j8, find: (a) 1A, (b) A4. Example B.5

Solution:
(a) First, convert A to polar form:
8
r  262  82  10, u  tan1  53.13, A  10l53.13
6
Then
1A  110l53.132  3.162l26.56

(b) Since A  10l53.13,

A4  r4l4u  104l4  53.13  10,000l212.52

If A  3  j4, find: (a) A13 (3 roots), and (b) ln A. Practice Problem B.5
Answer: (a) 1.71l102.3, 1.71l222.3, 1.71l342.3,
(b) 1.609  j5.356  j2n p (n  0, 1, 2, . . . ).
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Appendix C
Mathematical Formulas

This appendix—by no means exhaustive—serves as a handy reference. It

does contain all the formulas needed to solve circuit problems in this
book.

C.1 Quadratic Formula

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 are

b  2b2  4ac
x1, x2 
2a

C.2 Trigonometric Identities

sin (x)  sin x
cos(x)  cos x
1 1
sec x  , csc x 
cos x sin x
sin x 1
tan x  , cot x 
cos x tan x
sin(x  90)   cos x
cos(x  90)  sin x
sin(x  180)  sin x
cos(x  180)  cos x
cos2 x  sin2 x  1
a b c
  (law of sines)
sin A sin B sin C
a2  b2  c2  2bc cos A (law of cosines)
tan 12 (A  B) ab
 (law of tangents)
tan 12 (A  B) ab
sin(x  y)  sin x cos y  cos x sin y
cos(x  y)  cos x cos y  sin x sin y
tan x  tan y
tan(x  y) 
1  tan x tan y
2 sin x sin y  cos(x  y)  cos(x  y)
2 sin x cos y  sin(x  y)  sin(x  y)
2 cos x cos y  cos(x  y)  cos(x  y)
sin 2x  2 sin x cos x

A-16
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Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-17

cos 2x  cos2 x  sin2 x  2 cos2 x  1  1  2 sin2 x

2 tan x
tan 2x 
1  tan2 x
1
sin2 x  (1  cos 2x)
2
1
cos2 x  (1  cos 2x)
2
K2
K1 cos x  K2 sin x  2K 21  K 22 cos ax  tan1 b
K1
e jx  cos x  j sin x (Euler’s formula)
e jx  ejx
cos x 
2
e jx  ejx
sin x 
2j
1 rad  57.296

C.3 Hyperbolic Functions

1
sinh x  (ex  ex)
2
1
cosh x  (ex  ex)
2
sinh x
tanh x 
cosh x
1
coth x 
tanh x
1
csch x 
sinh x
1
sech x 
cosh x
sinh(x  y)  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
cosh(x  y)  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y

C.4 Derivatives
If U  U(x), V  V(x), and a  constant,

d dU
(aU )  a
dx dx
d dV dU
(UV )  U V
dx dx dx
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A-18 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas

dU dV
V U
a b
d U dx dx
dx V V2
d
(aU n)  naU n1
dx
d U dU
(a )  aU ln a
dx dx
d U dU
(e )  eU
dx dx
d dU
(sin U )  cos U
dx dx
d dU
(cos U )  sin U
dx dx

C.5 Indefinite Integrals

If U  U(x), V  V(x), and a  constant,

 a dx  ax  C
 U dV  UV   V dU (integration by parts)

U n1
 U n dU 
n1
 C, n1


dU
 ln U  C
U
aU
 a dU  ln a  C, a 7 0, a  1
U

 e dx  a e  C
1
ax ax

ax

 xe dx  a (ax  1)  C
e
ax
2

ax

 x e dx  a (a x  2ax  2)  C
2 ax e 2 2
3

 ln x dx  x ln x  x  C
 sin ax dx  a cos ax  C
1

 cos ax dx  a sin ax  C
1

 sin ax dx  2  4a  C
2 x sin 2ax

 cos ax dx  2  4a  C
2 x sin 2ax
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Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-19

 x sin ax dx  a (sin ax  ax cos ax)  C

1
2

 x cos ax dx  a (cos ax  ax sin ax)  C

1
2

 x sin ax dx  a (2ax sin ax  2 cos ax  a x

1
2
3
2 2
cos ax)  C

x
1
2
cos ax dx  (2ax cos ax  2 sin ax  a2x2 sin ax)  C
a3
eax
 eax sin bx dx 
a2  b2
(a sin bx  b cos bx)  C

eax
e ax
cos bx dx 
a  b2
2
(a cos bx  b sin bx)  C

sin(a  b)x sin(a  b)x

 sin ax sin bx dx  2(a  b)

2(a  b)
 C, a2  b2

cos(a  b)x cos(a  b)x

 sin ax cos bx dx   2(a  b)

2(a  b)
 C, a2  b2

sin(a  b)x sin(a  b)x

 cos ax cos bx dx  2(a  b)

2(a  b)
 C, a2  b2

a
dx 1 x
 tan1  C
2
x 2 a a
x2 dx

x
 x  a tan1  C
a x
2 2 a

 (a  2a 2  tan1 b  C
dx 1 x 1 x
2
x)2 2
2a x  a2 a a

C.6 Definite Integrals

If m and n are integers,
2p

 0
sin ax dx  0

2p

0
cos ax dx  0

p p

 
p
sin2 ax dx  cos2 ax dx 
0 0
2
p p

 0
sin mx sin nx dx  
0
cos mx cos nx dx  0, mn

p 0, m  n  even
 sin mx cos nx dx  c 2m
, m  n  odd
0
m2  n2
2p p
mn
 
0,
sin mx sin nx dx  sin mx sin nx dx  b
0 p
p, mn
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A-20 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas

p
, a 7 0
2

sin ax
dx  e 0, a0
x
0 p
 , a 6 0
2

C.7 L’Hopital’s Rule

If f (0)  0  h(0), then

f (x) f ¿(x)
lim  lim
xS0 h(x) xS0 h¿(x)
where the prime indicates differentiation.