Manufacturing Process – II

Lecture Notes
 Important Declaration

The class note is a synopsis of the lectures taken as a part of the course and information
collected from different sources including text books, research paper, experience of the
course coordinator and other acceptable sources. The instructor has intentionally
introduced some errors and mistakes in the note. The students are advised to be actively
present during the theory sessions and lectures to find out the mistakes. Students
pointing out the mistakes in the notes will be rewarded with gifts and goodies.

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ME 210 Machining and Machine Tools L T P C
Fourth Semester 3 0 0 3
(Mechanical Engineering Branch)
Pre-requisite – ME 1111, ME 1203, ME 1202, ME 1208

Module 1: Introduction: Introduction to machine tools, motions of machine tools, generation

of surfaces, types of machine tools, basic elements of machine tools.

Module 2: Mechanics of Machining (Metal Cutting): Geometry of single point cutting tools,
Conversion of tool angles from one system to another, Mechanism of chip formation,
Orthogonal and oblique cutting, Use of chip breaker in machining, Machining forces and
Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD), Taylor’s Tool Life Equations

Module 3: Lathe: Principle, classification, specifications, operations performed on a lathe.

Calculation for machining time, parameters and performance. Capstan and Turret Lathes:
introduction, comparison among capstan, turret and engine lathe, turret indexing mechanism,
feeding mechanism, cutting tools and tool holders, turret tooling layout.

Module 4: Shaper: Principle, classification, specifications, shaper mechanisms – crank and

slotted lever quick return mechanism, feed mechanism, operations performed on shaper –
machining horizontal, vertical, angular surfaces, cutting slots, grooves, key ways, machining
irregular surfaces, splines and gears. Cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and calculation for
machining time for shaping operations.

Module 5: Planer: Principle, classification, specifications, comparison between shaper and

planer.

Module 6: Milling machine: Principle, classification, specifications, peripheral milling, up

and down milling, face milling, end milling, different operations performed on milling
machines, dividing heads, methods of indexing – direct, simple, compound and differential
indexing, milling of spur gear, milling cutters.

Module 7: Drilling machine: Principle, classification, specifications, operations performed on

drilling machines, twist drill nomenclature.

Module 8: Grinding machines: Principle, classification, specifications, different grinding

processes, grinding wheel – components (wheel material), grit, grade and structure, standard
marking system of grinding wheels. Glazing and loading in wheels, dressing, truing,
balancing, and mounting of grinding wheels.

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Texts/Reference:

1. P N Rao: Manufacturing Technology Vol 2- Metal Cutting and Machine Tools: Tata
Mc Graw Hill

2. Schey: Introduction to Manufacturing Process: McGraw-Hill

3. S K Hajra Choudhury: Workshop Technology Vol II Machine Tools: Media Promoters &
Publishers Pvt. Ltd.4. G Boothroyd & W A Knight: Fundamentals of Machining and Machine
Tools: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group

5. H Gerling: All About Machine Tools: New Age Int. (P) Ltd.

6. R K Jain: Production Technology: Khanna Publishers

7. A. Ghosh & A. K. Mallik: Manufacturing Science: Affiliated East-West Press Pvt.

Ltd.

8. B S Raghuwanshi: A Course in Workshop Technology Vol II (Machine Tools): Dhanpat

Rai & Co.

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 MODULE 2: LATHE

3.1 Introduction

Lathe is one of the oldest machine tools and till date it is used widely in many
manufacturing industries. The course of time in lathe machine history is rewarded with any
advances in this tool with advanced design and automation. In general lathe is used for
removing of material for any types of materials but mostly widely used materials include
ductile material, and non-metallic materials like polymers, wood etc. The credit of
development of the first screw cutting lathe goes to Henry Maudslay in the year 1797. Many
operations can be performed on lathe that includes turning, thread cutting, grooving, slotting,
parting, facing etc. A typical lathe machine is shown in Fig. 3.1 for reference.

Fig. 3.1 Diagram of a typical lathe with various components

3.2 Functions of lathe

One of the major functions of lathe is to remove material from a work piece to give it
the required shape and size as per the designed specification by forming various different
surfaces. This is accomplished by holding the workpiece rigidly and securely on the machine

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and turning it against the cutting tool. The material removal process takes place in the form of
shearing of material with the formation of chip.

3.3 Types of lathe

Lathe machines of various specifications, functions and designs have been developed
during the course of time suited for various machining conditions. The types of popular and
generally used lathe machine are as follows.

A. Speed lathe
a. Wood working
b. Centering
c. Polishing
d. Spinning
B. Engine lathe
a. Belt drive
b. Individual motor drive
c. Gear head lathe
C. Bench lathe
D. Tool room lathe
E. Capstan and Turret lathe
F. Special purpose lathe
a. Wheel lathe
b. Gap bed lathe
c. T – lathe
d. Duplicating lathe
G. Automatic lathe

A. The speed lathe

The peed lathe, in construction and operation is the simplest among all types of lathe.
It consists of a headstock, tail stock, and bed and tool post mounted on an adjustable slide.
There is no feed box, lead screw and conventional type of carriage. This type of lathe is best
known for its spindle speed that can range between 1200 rev/min to 3600 rev/min. This lathe
is suitable for woodworking, spinning, centering and polishing works.

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B. The engine lathe or centre lathe

This is one of the most important among all types of lathe. The name is after the
principle of using an engine to drive the lathe in its early days. In the initial days, steam
engines were used to drive this type of lathe, which were later replaced with other power
producing units. One of the characteristics of this lathe is the transmission of power from
source to the head stock spindle through means of different transmission systems. This
includes belt drives, motor drives and gear drives. It has all the basic parts of a lathe as found
in speed lathe.

C. The bench lathe

This is a small lathe usually mounted of a bench. It has practically all parts of an
engine lathe or speed lathe and it can perform all operations. The only characteristic is its
small size that occupies less floor area compared to other types of lathe.

D. The tool room lathe

A tool room lathe having features similar to engine lathe is much more accurately
built and has wide range of spindle speed staring from a low speed to a very high speed. This
has additional parts like chuck, taper turning attachment, steady and follower rest, coolant
pump and hydraulic unit for movements, thread chasing dial, relieving attachment etc. This
lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work where
accuracy is needed. The cost of the machine is more compared to other lathe.

E. Capstan and Turret lathe

These lathes are the development of the engine lathe and are used for production
work. The distinguishing feature of this lathe is the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by
a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the
workpiece. This type of lathe is best known for its repeatability.

F. Special purpose lathe

The name suggests the characteristics of this lathe as it can accommodate and process
jobs that are difficult or not possible to process with other lathes. Many different types of this
lathe is available and all have special purpose for which it is designed. It can allow all
necessary fitments of any lathe along with few special tools used for special operations.

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G. Automatic lathe

These lathes are the most advanced form of lathes available till date. This includes
automatic control features that made it suitable for heavy duty and mass productions uses. In
this lathe parameters during lathe operations are monitored and controlled with accuracy for
better output.

3.4 The specification of lathe

The lathe is specified as per the following essential specifications.

A. Height of the centres: This is the vertical height of the centres of the lathe namely live
centre and dead centre from the bed of the lathe. This is measured up to a hypothetical line
passing through the centres from the bed. This signifies the parallelism of the lathe bed with
the axis of the lathe. Any deviation as per the length bed should be known prior hand for
better machining of long jobs.

B. The swing diameter over bed: This is the largest diameter of the job that can be hold
between the two lathe centres without interfacing with the lathe bed. This signifies that the
maximum diameter of the job possible to hold in lathe that will revolve around the lathe axis
without touching the bed.

C. The length between the centres: This is the measured length between the two lathe centres
and signifies the maximum job length that be hold in the length.

D. The swing diameter over the carriage: This is the maximum diameter of the job that is
hold in the lathe without touching the carriage or saddle. Usually this diameter is less than
swing diameter over the bed.

E. Maximum bar diameter: In some lathe there is a special hole in the headstock unit for
holding longer workpiece. This diameter signifies the maximum job diameter possible to hold
in the whole available in the headstock unit.

F. The length of the bed: This is the approximate floor size of the lathe. This is required to
make space arrangement during floor plan modelling and optimization work.

Apart from these specifications, lathes have been specified according to many other
characteristics such as width of bed, depth of bed, swing over gap, spindle nose diameter,

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range of spindle speeds, number of feed, thread specifications etc. Figure 3.2 shows a typical
lathe specifications chart.

Fig. 3.2 Lathe specification chart

3.5 Description and function of lathe parts

In lathe there are many vital parts or components available with specific functions.
Few of the important parts with their usage are illustrated below with the diagram of a typical
lathe shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Schematic diagram of a centre lathe

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3.5.1 The bed

The lathe bed forms the bed of the machine. The headstock and tailstock are located at
either end of the bed and the carriage rests over the lathe bed and slides on it. The lathe bed,
being the main guiding member of the machine tool, for accurate machining work, must
satisfy the following conditions.

a. It should be sufficiently rigid to prevent deflection under tremendous cutting pressure

transmitted through the tool post and carriage of the lathe bed.
b. It must be massive with sufficient depth and width to absorb vibration.
c. It must resist the twisting stress setup due to resultant of two forces – the downward
cutting force and the force tending to move the tool away from the job in a horizontal
direction. This is best done by diagonal ribbing or by making box section casting as
shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Bed design in lathe (a) box section lathe bed and (b) lathe bed with diagonal ribs

The bed material should have high compressive strength, should be wear resistant and
absorb vibration. Cast iron alloyed with Nickel and Chromium forms a good material suitable
for lathe bed.

3.5.2 The headstock

The headstock is one of the vital components of a lathe. This houses the power
source, all the power transmission, gear box and the spindle. The headstock is fixed at the
leftmost end of lathe bed. The function of headstock is to provide rotation to the job with the
chuck mounted on it. A typical headstock spindle used in lathe for rotation of the job is
shown in Fig. 3.5.

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Fig. 3.5 A typical headstock spindle with various parts: 1. Work driving spindle 2. Headstock
casing 3. Radial roller bearing 4. Journal ball bearing 5. Packing 6. Chuck

3.5.3 The tailstock

The tailstock is towards the rightmost end of the lathe bed and houses the tailstock
spindle for the purpose of locating the long components by the use of centres. The tailstock is
movable in the inner guideways provided on the bed to accommodate the different length of
workpieces. Tailstock also serves as the device for holding special tools during lathe
operations such as centre drill, twist drill, reamer etc. A typical tailstock is shown in Fig. 3.6.

Fig. 3.6 A typical tailstock with different parts

3.5.4 Carriage

The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serve to support, move and control the
cutting tool. It consists of the following parts. A typical carriage is shown in Fig. 3.7.

1. Saddle: The saddle is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides along the ways.
It carries the slide and the tool post. Some means are generally provided for locking the
saddle to prevent any movement when surfacing operations are carried out.

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2. Cross slide: The cross slide consists of a casting, machined on the underside for attachment
to the slides and carries locations on the upper face for the tool post or compound rest.

3. Compound slide or compound rest: The compound rest or compound slide is mounted on
the top of the cross slide and has a circular base graduated in degrees. It is used for obtaining
angular cuts and short taper as well as convenient positioning of the tool to the work.

4. Tool post: This is located on the top of the compound rest to hold the tool and enable it to
be adjusted to a convenient working position. There are many types of tool posts but few
common are single crew tool post, four bolt tool post, open side tool post and four way tool
post.

5. Apron: The apron is fastened to the saddle hangs over the front of the bed. It contains
gears, clutches and levers for operating carriage by hand and power feeds. The apron also
contains friction clutches for automatic feeds. In addition there is a split nut, when engages
with the lead screw different threads can be produced.

Fig. 3.7 Schematic of a typical carriage

3.5.5 Feed rod

The feed rod is a long shaft that has a keyway extending from the feed box across and
in front of the bed. The power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through
the feed rod through the large number of gears. The feed rod is used to move the carriage or
cross slide for turning, boring, facing and all other operations except thread cutting.

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3.5.6 Lead screw

The lead screw is a long threaded shaft used as a master screw, and is brought into
operation only when threads have to be manufactured. In all other operations lead screw is
disengaged from the gear box and remains stationary but this may be used to provide motion
for turning, boring etc. in lathes that are not equipped with feed rod.

3.5.7 Chuck

The most common job holding device used in lathe is chick. Chucks are found in
various designs and shape but most widely used are three jaw chuck, independent jaw chuck
(or four jaw chuck). Figure 3.8 shows schematics of both these two chucks. The advantage of
three jaw chuck is the quick way of centering the job with the lathe axis.

Fig. 3.8 Chucks used in lathe for job holding

3.5.8 Faceplate

Sometimes instead of chuck it is suitable to use a faceplate for holding the job. This
has radial slots on the plate for the purpose of locating the components and clamps the job by
means of standard clamps. A typical faceplate is shown in Fig. 3.9.

Fig. 3.9 A typical faceplate used for job clamping in lathe

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3.6 Operations performed on lathe (centre)

Lathe as a machine tool is capable of performing a large number of operations with

generation of various surfaces through different components setting. Major operations
performed on lathe machine are discussed below.

3.6.1 Turning(straight)

Turning is by far the most generally used operation in lathe. In this, the work held in
the spindle is rotated while the tool is fed pas the workpiece in a direction parallel to the axis
of rotation. The surface thus generated is cylindrical surface. Turning operation is
schematically represented in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Turning operation in lathe

3.6.2 Facing

Facing is an operation for generating flat surfaces in lathes as shown in Fig. 3.11. The
feed in this case is given in a direction perpendicular to the axis of revolution. The tool used
should thus have an approach angle suitable so that it would not interfere with the workpiece
during the tool feeding.

Fig. 3.11 Schematic of facing operation in lathe

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3.6.3 Knurling

Knurling is a metal working operation done in a lathe. In this a knurling tool having
the requisite serrations is forced on the workpiece material, thus deforming the top layer as
shown in Fig. 3.12.

Fig. 3.12 Schematic of knurling operation in lathe

3.6.4 Parting and grooving

Parting and grooving similar operations that can be performed in lathe. In this, a flat
nose tool (parting tool) would plunge cut the workpiece with a feed in the direction
perpendicular to the axis of revolution as shown in Fig. 3.13. This generation is usually used
for cutting off the part from the parent material. When the tool goes beyond the centre, the
part would be severed. Otherwise, a rectangular groove would be obtained.

Fig. 3.13 Schematic of parting operation in lathe with parting tool

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3.6.5 Drilling

Drilling is the operation of making cylindrical holes into the solid material as shown
in Fig. 3.14. A twist drill is held in the quill of the tailstock and is fed into the rotating
workpiece by feeding the tailstock quill. Since the workpiece is rotating, the workpiece of the
hole is very well maintained even when the drill enters at an angle initially. This drilling
operation is limited only to produce hole through the axis of rotation only.

Fig. 3.14 Schematic of drilling operation in lathe

3.6.6 Boring

Boring is an operation of enlarging a hole already made by a single point boring tool
termed as boring bar as shown in Fig. 3.15. The operation is somewhat similar to the external
turning operation. Boring in lathe is preferred for better surface finish.

Fig. 3.15 Schematic of boring bar

3.6.7 Taper turning

Taper turning in lathe is one of the most common applications. A number of methods
are available for producing tapers in a lathe. These are as follows.

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 A. using a compound slide
B. using form tools
C. offsetting the tailstock
D. using taper turning attachment

A. Using the compound slide

The compound slide is an auxiliary slide underneath the toolpost and above the
carriage. It is possible to swivel the compound slide to the desired angle of taper for
producing taper surface as shown in Fig. 3.16. The tool is then made perpendicular to the
workpiece and feed is given manually by the operator. Some of the features of this method
are:

 short and steep tapers can be easily done

 limited movement of compound slide
 as the feed is given manually it leads to low productivity and poor surface finish

Fig. 3.16 Taper turning using compound slide method in lathe

B. Using form tools

The earlier method for the production of taper suffers from limitation of low
productivity as the mounting and setting the job and tool takes countable time. Another
method for generating taper surface in lathe is by the use of form tool. In this case a tool with
predefined form angle is selected and feed is given directly to the workpiece. This method is
used for short taper and not suitable for long taper as this leads to tool chattering and
vibrations and thus poor surface finish. Moreover, this process is affected by tool conditions

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such as cutting tool taper angle, cutting edge conditions etc. A typical setup for this operation
is shown in Fig. 3.17.

Fig. 3.17 Taper turning in lathe wit h form tool

C. Offsetting the tailstock

Fig. 3.18 Tailstock offset method for taper turning in lathe

In Fig. 3.18 schematically taper turning procedure with tailstock offsetting method is
shown. Referring to the figure,

𝐵𝐶
sin 𝛼 =
𝐴𝐵

𝑥 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝛼 = 𝐿 sin 𝛼

For a relatively small value of α, one can approximate as

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 𝐷−𝑑
sin 𝛼 ≈ tan 𝛼 ≈
2𝑙

Therefore,

𝐷−𝑑
𝑥=𝐿
2𝑙

where,

𝑙 = length of workpiece

𝐿 = distance between centres

𝑥 = tailstock offset

𝛼 = half taper angle

𝐷 = larger taper diameter

𝑑 = smaller taper diameter

This method is suitable for small taper angle over a long job length. One of the
difficulty lies in this method in the centering of the job is difficult as the offset leads to more
thrust in radial direction of the lathe main spindle.

D. Using taper turning attachment

Apart from the aforementioned methods, another method for taper turning is available
with lathe and is known as taper turning using taper attachment. In this method, a separate
slideway is arranged at the rear of the cross slide. This slide can be rotated at an angle to be
set up. The clock that can slide in this taper slideway is rigidly connected to the cross slide as
shown in Fig. 3.19. The cross slide is made floating by disconnecting it from the lead screw.
As the carriage moved for feeding, the block moves in the inclined track of the slide, and it
gets the proportional cross movement perpendicular to the feed direction. The cross slide and
in turn the cutting tool, also gets the proportional movement. Thus, the tool tip follows the
taper direction set in the attachment. However, in this position of the cross slide it cannot be
used for other turning operations.

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 Fig. 3.19 Taper turning in lathe using the taper attachment

3.6.7 Chamfering

Chamfering, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.20, is the operation of bevelling the

extreme end of a workpiece. This is done to remove the burrs, to protect the end of the
workpiece from being damaged and to have better aesthetic appeal. The operation may be
performed after knurling, rough turning, drilling, boring, thread cutting. Chamfering is an
essential operation after thread cutting so that the nut may pass freely on the threaded
workpiece.

Fig. 3.20 Schematic representation of chamfering operation on lathe

3.7 Feed mechanism

The movement of the cutting tool relative to the work is referred as feed. A lathe tool
may have three types of feed – longitudinal, cross and angular. When the cutting tool moves
parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as longitudinal feed and is effected by the
movement of the carriage. When the tool moves at the right angle of the lathe axis with the

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help of the cross slide the movement is termed as cross feed. When the movement of the
cutting tool is at an angle to the lathe axis with the help of the compound rest swivelled at an
angle is referred as angular feed.

3.8 Thread cutting mechanism

The rotation of the lead screw is used to transverse the tool along with the work to
produce the screw threads. The half nut mechanism illustrated in Fig. 3.21 makes the carriage
to engage or disengage with the lead screw. It comprises of a pair of half nuts capable of
moving in or out of mesh with the lead screw. The two halves of the nuts connected in the
slot in a circular disc by two pins. When the disc is rotated by a hand attached to it, the pins
being guided in the cam slots serve to open or close the split nuts and thus engage or
disengages with the lead screw. The half nut slides within the guide or frame. Closing the half
nut causes the carriage to move a fixed distance for each revolution of the spindle. The
direction in which it moves depends upon the position of the feed reverse lever on the
headstock. The split nut mechanism is used only for thread cutting.

Fig. 3.21 Half nut mechanism in lathe for thread cutting

Calculation of change of wheels for thread cutting

To calculate the wheels required for cutting a screw of certain pitch it is necessary to
know how the ratio is obtained, and exactly where the driving and driven wheels are to be
placed. Supposed the pitch of the lead screw is 12 mm and it is required to cut a screw of 3
mm pitch, then the lathe spindle must rotate 4 times the speed of the lead screw, that is

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 𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 4
=
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 1

Since, smaller gear turns faster than a larger gear with which it is connected. Thus,

𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

For example, if a thread is having a pitch of 1 mm and pitch of lead screw is 6 mm, then
change of gears can be calculated as

𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡 1 1 × 20 20

= = = =
𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 6 6 × 20 120

Thus, the driver gear, i.e., spindle will have 20 teeth and the driven gear on the lead screw
will have 120 teeth.

Depending on the space availability and availability of gears the gear trains can be simple or
compound. However, in compound gear train, intermediate gears do not have any influence
on thread cutting and are only used for transmission of motion in the same direction between
driver and driven gears.

3.9 Process parameters during lathe operations

In any operations parameters that are responsible for affecting the outcome of the
process are referred as process parameters. Any deviation of any of thee the process
parameters or the deviation of combination of parameters from the desired one leads to the
product quality in various means. In lathe operations also selection of suitable process
parameters is essential for estimation of machinating time and other characteristics of the
process. In turning operations process parameters such as cutting speed, feed, and depth of
cut are significant. Among these parameters, materials of the workpiece and tool, tool
position and signatures, machine conditions also affect the machining conditions. For an
effective machining operation using lathe combination of these parameters needs to be
suitably selected for better output.

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3.9.1 Cutting speed

The cutting speed (𝜈) of a tool is the speed at which the material is removed by the
tool from the workpiece. In lathe, it is the peripheral speed of the workpiece past the cutting
tool expressed in meters per minute.

πDN
cutting speed (ν) = m/min
1000

where,

𝜈 = cutting speed in m/min

D = diameter of the workpiece in mm

N = rotational speed of workpiece in rev/min

3.9.2 Feed (f)

The feed of a cutting tool in lathe work is the distance the tool advances for each
revolution of the work. Feed is expressed in millimeter per revolution (mm/rev) of the
workpiece. Increase in feed greatly reduced the cutting time but severely reduces the tool life.

3.9.3 Depth of cut (t)

The depth of cut (𝑡) is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface
to the uncut surface of the workpiece. In a lathe the depth of cut is expressed as follows.

𝐷1 − 𝐷2
Depth of cut =
2

where,

𝐷1 = diameter of the workpiece before machining

𝐷2 = diameter of the workpiece after machining

3.10 Machining time

The machining time in lathe work can be calculated for a particular operation if the
cutting speed, feed length of the workpiece is known.

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 If 𝑓 is the feed in mm/rev and 𝑙 is the length of the job in mm, then the number of
revolutions of the job required for a complete cut will be:

𝑙
time taken (T) = min
𝑓×𝑁

where,

𝑙 = length of the job in mm

𝑓 = feed in mm/min

𝑁 = job rotational speed in rev/min

Example 1: A grey cast iron is machined in a centre lathe in 1 minute with a single cut. The
shaft is 100 mm long and 75 mm in diameter. If the feed used is 0.30 mm/rev, what cutting
speed was used?

Solution:

Given,

Length of the job, 𝑙 = 100 mm

Diameter of the job, 𝐷 = 75 mm

Time taken for machining, 𝑇 = 1 min

Feed, 𝑓 = 0.30 mm/rev

To calculate cutting speed, 𝜈

Time taken for machining is

𝑙
𝑇= min
𝑓×𝑁

With the given information, N = 333.33 rev/min

From the equation of cutting speed, we have,

𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝜈= m/min
1000

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Thus, 𝝂 = 78.53 m/min

3.11 Effect of process parameters on machining performance

Machining is affected by the aforementioned process parameters individually or in

combinations during the lathe operations. The following summarizes the effects of these on
machining performance.

Cutting speed: The selection of suitable cutting speed on lathe operations is crucial as it
defines the product quality in terms of surface finish, dimensional accuracy etc. High cutting
speeds are preferred for ductile materials and low or average cutting speeds are preferred for
brittle materials. But increase in cutting speed in general reduces the tool life than lower
cutting speed. To achieve higher surface finish during turning, higher cutting speeds are
generally followed over lower cutting speed that generates poor surface finish.

Depth of cut: Depth of cut influences the machining operation in many aspects. Primarily, a
sensible depth of cut is given during the turning operations depending of the amount of
machining to be performed. It also depends on the number of cutting passes to be used for the
machining. In general, a high depth of cut results in high tool chatters that increase the risk of
tool breakage and failure. Moreover, high depth of cut is usually preferred for ductile
materials and for brittle materials lower values of depth of cut is preferred.

Feed: Feed and feed rate highly govern the machining performance. Relatively reasonable
feed rate is used during machining. The selection of feed rate depends on many factors such
as materials under processing; cutting speed selected, tool conditions, use of cutting fluid or
coolant, number of cutting passes, desired surface finish, machine tool specifications etc.
Thus, it is not possible to conclude or define a general feed rate range for different materials.
It needs experience and knowledge for selection of a proper feed rate. In practice, it is
believed that, higher feed rate usually results in poor surface finish and poor dimensional
accuracy.

4. Capstan and Turret lathes

A capstan or a turret lathe is a production lathe used to manufacture any number of

identical pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are development of engine lathes. The
capstan lathe was first developed in United States of America by Pratt and Whitney
somewhere around 1860. The semiautomatic lathes, capstan lathe and turret lathe are very

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similar in construction, operation and application. Figure 3.22 shows a schematic
representation of basic configuration of capstan lathe and Fig. 3.23 shows schematic of turret
lathe.

Fig. 3.22 Basic configuration of capstan lathe

Fig. 3.23 Basic configuration of a turret lathe

4.1 Difference between capstan and turret lathe and engine lathe

Although capstan and turret lathes are the development of engine lathe but bears some
differences owing to its construction and operation. These differences are highlighted as
follows.

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 i. The headstock of the turret lathe is similar to that of the engine lathe in construction
but possesses wide range of speeds and is much heavier than the engine lathe.
ii. The tool post mounted on the cross slide of a turret lathe is a four way tool post which
holds four tools which may be indexed by 90° and each tool may be brought into
operation in a regular order. In addition to this, there is a rear tool post mounted upon
the carriage which holds another tool whereas, in engine lathe the practice is to hold
only one tool at a time during operation.
iii. In turret lathe the tailstock of an engine is replaced by a turret. This is a six sided
block each side of which may carry one or more tools. Thus, in place of a tailstock in
centre lathe which can accommodate only one tool of limited size, the six faces of the
turret holds one or more tools. These tools may be indexed one after another to
perform different operations in a regular order. This is quite advantageous is mass
production work.
iv. The feed movement of each tool set on square or hexagonal turret may be regulated
by stops and feed trips. They enable the same tool to perform operations on each
workpiece to a predetermined amount making duplication of work without further
measurement.
v. In a turret lathe, combination cuts can be taken. Two or more tool may be mounted on
the same face of the turret making it possible to machine more than one surface at a
time. This feature reduces total operational time. In centre lathe this type or
arrangement is quite uncommon.
vi. Capstan and turret lathes are not usually fitted with leadscrew for cutting threads
similar to an engine lathe. The threads are usually cut by dieheads and taps. A short
length leadscrew called ‘cashing screw’ are sometimes provided for cutting threads by
a chaser in a turret lathe.

4.2 Difference between capstan and turret lathe

The following summarizes the basic difference between a turret and capstan lathe.

Turret lathe Capstan lathe

1 In turret lathe the main turret is
directly installed on the saddle and Capstan lathe is ram type turret lathe and the
the saddle is move along the entire movement of the ram is limited.
length of the lathe bed.

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 In turret lathe the turret tool head is Turret head is mounted on a slide called as
2 directly mounted on the saddle and ram which is mounted on the saddle in case of
they appear like a single unit. capstan lathes.
In turret lathe saddle is moved for But in case of capstan lathe saddle is fixed at a
3
providing feed to the tool. point but ram is moved.
Saddle is move along the entire The short strokes of the ram have some
4 length so it is used to machining of limitations so this lathe is used to machining
large work pieces. of small work piece only.
It has slower operation because of It has fast working operations because lighter
5
heavy weight of all the components. in construction.
In case of capstan lathe feed stop screws are
In turret lathe limit dogs are used to
6 provided at the rear side of the turret for
control the movement of the tool.
controlling the tool movement.
It is used to machine large work Relatively less feed and depth of cut are
7 piece so large depth of cut and feed provided for machining because used for small
is provided for machining. work pieces.
In turret lathes external threads are
generally cut by a single point or a
But in case of capstan lathe external threads
multipoint chasing tool which is
8 are cut using a self opening die which is
installed on the front slide and
mounted on the one face of the turret.
moved by a short lead screw and a
swing type half nut.
Turret lathe is mostly single spindle
and horizontal type lathe but may be But the capstan lathe is usually single spindle
9
vertical and multi spindle type in and horizontal axis type only.
some cases.
In turret lathes power operated jaw
In case of capstan lathe hand operated collect
10 chucks are used to hold the work
chucks are used for holing the work piece.
piece.

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4.3 Turret indexing mechanism

A simple line sketch of the mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.24. The schematic
represents an inverted plan of the turret assembly. The turret 1 is mounted on the spindle 5,
which rests rest on a bearing on the turret saddle. The index plate 2, the bevel gear 3, and an
indexing ratchet 4 are keyed to the spindle 5. The plunger 14 fitted within the housing and
mounted on the saddle locks the index plate by spring 15 pressure and prevents any rotary
movement of the turret as the tool feeds into the work. A pin 13 fitted on the plunger 14
projects out of the housing. An actuating cam 10 and the indexing pawl 7 are attached to the
lathe bed 9 at the desired position. Both the cam and the spring are spring loaded. As the
turret reaches the backward position, the actuating cam lifts the plunger 14 out of the groove
in the index plate due to the riding of the pin 13 on the bevelled surface of the cam 10 and
thus unlocks the index plate 2. The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time engages a groove
of the ratchet plate 4, causes the ratchet to rotate as the turret head move backward. When the
index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution, the pin 13 and the plunger 14
drops out of the cam 10 and the plunger locks the index plate at the next groove. The turret is
thus indexed by one sixth of revolution and again locked into the new position automatically.
The turret holding the nest tool is now fed forward and the pawl is released from the ratchet
plate by the spring pressure.

The bevel pinion 6 meshes with the bevel gear 3 mounted on the turret spindle. The
extension of the pinion shaft carries a plate holding six adjustable stop rods 8. As the turret
rotates one sixth of the revolution, the bevel gear 3 causes the plate to rotate. The ratio of the
teeth between the pinion and the gear are so chosen that when the tool mounted on the face of
the turret is indexed to bring it to the cutting position, the particular stop rod for controlling
the longitudinal travel of the tool is aligned with the stop 12. The setting of the stop rods 8 for
limiting the feed of each operation may be adjusted by unscrewing the loc nuts and rotating
the stop rods on the plate. Thus six stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the longitudinal
travel of the tools mounted on six faces of the turret.

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 Fig. 3.24 Schematic of turret indexing mechanism

4.4 Bar feeding mechanism

The capstan and turret lathe while working on bar work require some mechanism for
bar feeding. The long bars which protrude out of the headstock spindle require to be fed
through the spindle up to the bar stop after the first piece is completed and the collect chuck
is opened. In simple cases, the bar might be pushed by hand. But the process unnecessarily
increases the total operational time, because the spindle and the ling bar must come to a dead
stop before any adjustment can be made. Various types of bar feeding mechanisms have been
therefore designed which push the bar forward immediately after the collect releases the work
without stopping the machine, enabling the setting time to be reduced to the minimum. Fig.
3.25 illustrates a simple bar feeding mechanism. The bar 6 is passed through the bar chuck 3,
spindle of the machine and then through the collet chuck. The bar chuck 3 rotates in the
sliding bracket body 2 which is mounted on a ling side bar. The bar chuck 3 grips the bar
centrally by two set screws 5 and rotates with the bar in the sliding bracket body 2. One end
of the chain 8 is connected to the pin 9 fitted on the sliding bracket 10 and the other end
supports a weight 4, the chain running over the two fixed pulleys 7 and 11 mounted on the
slide. The weight 4 constantly exerts end thrust on the bar chuck while it revolves on the
sliding bracket and forces the bar through the spindle, the moment the collet chuck is
released. Thus bar feeding may be accomplished without stopping the machine.

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 Fig. 3.25 Schematic of bar feeding mechanism

4.5 Tool holding devices and cutting tools in capstan and turret lathe

Capstan and turret lathes are used for production of various components in mass
production system. For this variety tools and tool holding devices are used in general. Tool
holding devices and tools are mounted on the turret face and in the tool post mounted on the
compound slide in the lathes. Few essential tool holding devices are listed below.

i. Straight cutter holder

ii. Plain or adjustable angle cutter holder
iii. Multiple cutter holder
iv. Offset cutter holder
v. Combination tool holder
vi. Slide tool holder
vii. Knee tool holder
viii. Boring bar holder
ix. Drill holder
x. Reamer holder
xi. Knurling tool holder

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 xii. Recessing tool holder
xiii. Form tool holder
xiv. Tap holder
xv. Die holder
xvi. Balanced tool holder
xvii. Bar ending tool holder

The different tools mounted on the tool holders on the turret face and tools mounted on
the compound slide are similar in construction as that of centre lathe tools. The tools mounted
on the compound slide loosely perform turning, facing, necking and parting off operations.
The standard tools are listed below.

i. Turning tool
ii. Facing tool
iii. Parting tool
iv. Chamfering tool
v. Grooving and recessing tool
vi. Forming tool
vii. Drill
viii. Boring tool
ix. Counter bore
x. Reamer
xi. External thread cutting tool
xii. Internal thread cutting tool

4.6 Turret tooling layout

In order to perform any work in a capstan and turret lathe, proper planning for
systematic operations should be carried out in advance before setting the work on the lathe.
The tooling layout is basically a representation ordered and systematic operations need to be
performed during the production of a job. With the example of production of a hexagonal
head bolt the idea of tooling layout would be clearer.

A. The capacity chart of the machine is made available. The chart supplied by
manufacturers contains every working details of the machine such as maximum and
minimum diameter of the job that can be mounted, maximum length of stroke of the

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 turret and saddle, maximum length of the cross slide movement, tools available,
swing diameter over the carriage, bore diameter on the turret face, bore diameter of
the spindle, maximum size of the collet chuck, number of spindle speed, feed etc.
B. The drawing of the finished hexagonal bolt is taken into consideration.
C. The tools and equipment such as bar stop, roller steady turning tool holder, roller
steady ending tool holder, self-opening die head, chamfering tool, parting tool are
collected.
D. The sketch of the work and tools are superimposed on the capacity chart to decide
the length of the travel of the tool and the positions of stops.
E. Proper speeds and feeds for each operation are calculated.
F. Setting and machining operations are performed in the following order:
a. Setting of the bar stops: The bar stop is set a distance of 70 mm (length of
the bolt is 60 mm including the head height) from the collet face by using
a slip gauge. An extra length of 10 mm than the bolt length is allowed, 4
mm for parting off and 6 mm for clearance off the collet face so that the
parting off tool may penetrate deep into the work without any interference.

Fig. 3.26 Setting of bar stop (1. Workstop 2. Position of bar stop 3. Hexagonal bar)

b. Setting of the roller steady box turning tool: The roller steady box turning
tool is set on the next turret face for turning a diameter of 16 mm. The stop
for turning the tool is set 20 mm from the collet face by a slip gauge. The
rollers are set slightly behind the cutting edges, approximately 1.5 mm.

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Fig. 3.27: Setting of box turning tool (1. Roller 2. Turning tool 3. Position of stop rod)

c. Setting of bar ending tool: the bar ending tool is set on the next turret face
and is brought into operation after turning the bar. The stop is sdjested in
the position by using a slip gauge.

Fig. 3.27 Setting of bar ending tool (1. Roller 2. Bar ending 3. Position of stop rod)

d. Setting of die opening die head: The self opening die head is mounted on
the next face of the turret and the dies are fitted into it to cut a thread of 16
mm diameter. The stop is adjusted in a position keeping in view the
pulling out length of the die head for self releasing.

Fig. 3.28 Setting of self opening die head (1. Die head 2. Position of stop rod 3. Pulling
out length)

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 e. Setting of chamfering tool: The chamfering tool is mounted on the four
station turret on the cross slide and the extreme longitudinal position of the
saddle is adjusted by a stop.

Fig. 3.29 Setting of chamfering tool (1. Position of stop on cross slide 2. Chamfering tool
3. Turret saddle stop)

f. Setting of parting off tool: The parting of tool is set on the rear tool post on
the cross slide and the longitudinal position of the parting off tool is
adjusted by the stop set a distance of 6 mm from the turret face.

Fig. 3.30 Setting of parting off tool (1. Parting off tool 2. Position of stop rod)

4.7 Tooling schedule chart

A tooling schedule chart for each workpiece is of great importance in capstan or turret
lathe work for ready reference. A tooling schedule chart for the above operations is given
below.

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Machine – 75 mm capstan lathe Material: A hexagonal mild steel bar
Operation
Description of operation Tool positions Tools
No.
1 Hold in collet 1st turret position Bar stop
2 Turn to 16 mm diameter 2nd turret position Roller steady box
turning tool
3 Form end of bolt 3rd turret position Roller steady bar
ending tool
4 Thread 16 mm 4th turret position Self opening die head
with chasers for 16
mm
5 Chamfer Front cross slide tool Chamfering tool
post
6 Parting off Rear tool post Parting off tool

***

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