Development

Aviwe Ntsethe

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 • All work is covered in chapter 29,
Tortora & Derrickson,
Introduction to the Human Body
Eleventh Edition; Silverthorn
Human Physiology
• Lecture 1-3: Development
Lecture plan principles, Fertilization and
Embryogenesis.
• Lecture 3-4: gastrulation,
neurulation, somatogenesis,
organogenesis, labor, physiological
changes during pregnancy.
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 Development
• Pregnancy: Sequence of
events from fertilisation to
birth (38-40 weeks)
• Development:
➢Fertilisation
➢Embryonic period – fertilised
zygote to 8th week
➢Fetal period – week 9 to birth
➢Birth is 38 to 40 weeks after
fertilization

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 Fertilization
✓Fertilization- Penetration of the zona
pellucida is facilitated by enzymes in
the sperm’s acrosome.
✓haploid sperm cell (after capacitation)
and a haploid secondary oocyte
merges into a single diploid nucleus
(zygote (totipotent)).
✓Of millions of sperm deposited only
less than 1% reach secondary oocyte.
✓Secondary oocyte is viable for 24hrs
after ovulation
✓Polyspermy is prevented by the
depolarization of the cell membrane of
the secondary oocyte, blocking other
sperms
[Link]
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 Twins
• Dizygotic (fraternal) – form 2 different zygotes
✓2 different secondary oocytes fertilised by 2 different sperm
✓Most common – in older women & those on fertility treatment
(stimulates more mature 2ndary oocytes to develop)
• Monozygotic (identical) – from one fertilised ovum
✓Genetically identical (always same sex)
✓Ovum separates in two embryo within first 8 days
• Conjoined twins – embryo splits later than 8 days in development
• Doesn’t fully separate & embryos may share some body structures

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 Cleavage and the Formation of the Morula
and Blastocyst
• Early rapid mitotic cell division of a
zygote is called cleavage, and the cells
produced by cleavage are called
blastomeres.
• Cleavage (first cell division) occurs 24
hrs after fertilization.
• Blastomeres divide and form morula
(day 4) which develop into blastocyst
(day 5).
• Blastocyst differentiated into a
trophoblast and an inner cell mass
(embryoblast).
• Trophoblast forms the chorion, fetal
part of the placenta.
• Inner cell mass (embryoblast)
develop into hypoblast and epiblast.
This is what will later form an embryo
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 Implantation
• The attachment of a blastocyst to the endometrium is termed
implantation (day 6).

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 Embryonic Period (day 8)
• Trophoblast will differentiate into two layers:
✓ Cytotrophoblast – forms membrane around
embryoblast
✓ Syncytiotrophoblast – secretes enzymes
enabling implantation into the endometrium
✓ Trophoblast will also secrete human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)- maintains
corpus luteum (9 weeks) which secrete
progesterone and estrogen to maintain uterine
lining.
• Embryoblast will differentiate into two layers:
• The Hypoblast forms the yolk sac (soon
replaced by placenta), which transfers
nutrients to the embryo, forms blood cells, and
forms part of the gut.
• Epiblast –will form most cells of the embryo;
[Link]
together with hypoblast will form amniotic
cavity.
 Embryonic Period (day 8)
• As amniotic cavity enlarge it forms amnion (a thin, protective
membrane) which is filled with amniotic fluid- act as shock
absorber, helps prevent drying out and temperature
regulator
• The hypoblast forms yolk sac
• Yolk sac function to provide nutrients during 2nd and 3rd week
of development, sauce of blood cells (3rd to 6th week), act as
shock absorber, helps prevent drying out, form part of gut.
• About day 12, embryonic mesoderm develop from yolk sac,
together with trophoblastic layers they form chorion.
• Chorion protect the embryo and later the fetus from the
immune response of mother by:
✓ Secrete proteins that block antibody production by the
mother.
✓ Produces hCG hormone
Summary of fertilization and
implantation
 Gastrulation
• The third week of development is
characterized by gastrulation
• Gastrulation is the formation of embryonic
disk made up of germ layers from epiblast
cells.
✓ Invagination - some epiblast cells move
inward, detach from epiblast, forming
Endoderm- form components of the
digestive and respiratory system
✓ Mesoderm: give rise to skeletal,
circulatory and muscular system
✓ Ectoderm: Develop into skin, and nervous
system through the formation neural plate
late neural tube (process called
neurulation)
 Neurulation
Neurulation
• Ectodermal cells form neural plate which
elevate to form neural fold and groove.
• They fuse to form neural tube.
• The process of the formation of neural tube
from ectodermal cells is called neurulation.
• The neural tube develop into brain and
spinal cord.
• Some of ectodermal cells form neural crest
which give rise to neurons, melanocytes,
adrenal medullae, arachnoid and pia
matter; skeletal and connective tissue of
the head.
 Somatogenesis
• Mesoderm form cube shaped • In third week of development, small
structures called somites. spaces form in lateral plate of
mesoderm merge to form
• Each somite develop into
intraembryonic coelom, Then split
three regions: into:
✓ Myotome- develop into ✓ Splanchnic mesoderm form heart,
skeletal muscle blood vessels, respiratory and
✓ Dermatome- Form connective digestive organs.
tissue, including dermis of the ✓ Somatic mesoderm- give rise to
bones, ligaments, blood vessels,
skin
pericardium, pleurae and
✓ Sclerotome- form vertebrae peritonium.
and ribs
 Recap and discussion
• What is fertilization?
• When does the first cell division occur after fertilization?
• What is the process called where zygote undergo rapid cell division?
• What is the process that must occur before the sperm can be able to fertilize second oocyte called?
• Name the two main layers of blastocyst develops.
• Define implantation and when does it occur.
• Name two layers that a trophoblast develop About 8 days after fertilization.
• Name the hormone secreted by syncytiotrophoblast and chorion plus its function.
• Name a thin, protective membrane that develops from the epiblast.
• Discuss the functions of the fluid inside amnion.
• Which layer of the trophoblast form chorion and fetal part of the placenta?
• Define gastrulation, when does it occur and list the germ layers it forms
• List the organ system formed by each layer
 Placenta
• The placenta is formed by the chorion of the
embryo and a portion of the endometrium of the
mother.
• Chorionic villi project into endometrium-prevent
the 2 blood systems from directly interacting –
stops maternal immune rejection of embryo/fetus
• The placenta is the site of exchange of oxygen
and wastes between the mother and fetus.
• The placenta also functions as a protective barrier,
stores nutrients, and produces several hormones
to maintain pregnancy. The actual connection
between the placenta and the fetus is the
umbilical cord.
• By the sixth- 8th week of pregnancy, the placenta
will secrete estrogens, progesterone, relaxin .
These placental hormones will increase until the
time of delivery.
• The formation of body organs and systems occurs
during the 4th week of development.
 Cell fate
• At some point the fate of a cell is fixed • Major families of factors –
(determined) → more limited in its homeodomain, zinc finger domain
developmental potential = pluripotent
regulate development
• Cell then differentiates into a specific cell
lineage, loses more of its developmental • Each type of factor has a
potential. corresponding target DNA
• Cell shape, size and function changes as sequence
specific cell type forms
• Homeodomain proteins – contain a
• Some “housekeeping genes” expressed in
60 amino acid helix structure that
all cells -required at all times for cell
structure, protein synthesis, metabolism binds specific sites in DNA (often
• Others are cell type specific – expression enhancers) and regulates the
is controlled by transcription factors expression of those genes
 HOX genes
• HOX gene clusters encode homeodomain proteins
controlling anterioposterior pattern (process by which
a body's axis is established during development) and Regulation of HOX genes
identity
• HOX genes are located in clusters in
• Confer position and identity to developing body –
regulate transcription of sets of genes functional chromatin domains –
regulates their expression.
• Basic layout of vertebrate body is controlled along
the anterior → posterior (head → tail) axis using • Body attributes are assembled along
HOX-independent regulatory mechanisms – load the body axis sequentially from head
patterning information. to tail as embryo develops.
• Gdf11 and Oct4 are major genes in establishing the • HOX expression regulates genes
body plan. affecting characteristics of dedicated
✓ Gdf11 in posterior embryonic region, Oct11 in more axial progenitor cells that give rise to
anterior region. They and others control expression the cells of the body structures at that
of HOX genes.
position of the body axis.
• HOX genes carry region-specific pattern instructions
which act on other genes in the axial progenitor cells
→ guide production of body structures at the correct
axial level.
 Axial development
• 3 main steps – each regulated by a separate gene network.
➢ Step 1: head development (brain & heart primordia,
musculoskeletal structures of head and neck) eg Hox4 – neck
vertebrae
➢ Step 2: trunk development (most internal organs, including
reproductive organs) eg Hox5,6&9 - ribcage
➢ Step 3: tail formation (vertebrae, muscles & neural tissue) eg
Hox10&11 lumbar & sacral regions
 Changes During Embryonic period
• 1–4 weeks: Begins Brain
development, Blood vessel
formation, placenta limbs, eyes,
ears and body systems begin to
form, Heart forms (two strands)
and begins to beat.
• 5–8 weeks: Brain, blood vessels and
limbs development continues.
Heart becomes four-chambered
(beat twice to the mother). Eyes are
far apart and eyelids are fused.
Nose develops and is flat.
Ossification begins. Blood cells
start to form in liver. External
genitals begin to differentiate. Many
internal organs continue to develop.

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 Changes During fetal period
• 9–12 weeks: Head constitutes about half the
length of the fetal body, Face is broad, with
eyes fully developed. Nose develops a
bridge. External ears develop and are low
set. Ossification continues. Upper limbs
almost reach final relative length but lower
limbs are not quite as well developed.
Heartbeat can be detected. Gender is
distinguishable from external genitals.
Urine secreted by fetus is added to amniotic
fluid. Red bone marrow, thymus, and spleen
participate in blood cell formation.
• 13–16 weeks: Eyes move medially to their
final positions, and ears move to their final
positions on the sides of the head. Lower
limbs lengthen.
• 17–20 weeks: Eyebrows and head hair are
visible. Sebaceous glands and delicate fetal
cover fetus. Brown fat forms and is the site of
heat production. Fetal movements are
commonly felt by mother (quickening).
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 Changes During fetal period
• 21–25 weeks: By 24 weeks, lung cells
begin to produce surfactant.
• 26–29 weeks: Head and body are more
proportionate and eyes are open. Testes
begin to descend toward scrotum at 28
to 32 weeks. Red bone marrow is major
site of blood cell production.
• 30–34 weeks: Fetus assumes upside-
down position. Pupillary reflex is present
by 30 weeks. Body fat is 8% of total body
mass.
• 35–38 weeks: Body fat is 16% of total
body mass. Testes are usually in
scrotum in full-term male infants. Even
after birth, an infant is not completely
developed; an additional year is
required, especially for complete
development of the nervous system.
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 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy
• During pregnancy, some joints become less stable.
• A pregnant woman may tire more easily than usual
Anatomical and Physiological Changes During Pregnancy
• Continuously enlargement of Uterus
• Increased tidal volume
• Increased minute volume of respiration
• Decreased airway resistance
• increase in total body oxygen consumption (by 10-20%).
• GI tract compressed causing heartburn & constipation
• Pressure on bladder causes increased frequency & urgency
• Glomerular filtration rate rises

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 Labor
➢Labor (parturition) is the process by
which the fetus is expelled from the
uterus through the vagina.
➢Oxytocin cause contraction of the
uterus.
➢True labor can be divided into:
✓Dilation stage: complete dilation of
cervix (10 cm), last 6-12 hours. The
rupture of the amniotic sac (water
break)
✓Expulsion stage: delivery of the
fetus. Should last less done 2 hours.
✓Placental stage: ejection of
placenta due to powerful
contraction of the uterus after birth.

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 Recap and discussion
• What makes up a placenta?
• What are the functions of placenta
• Why maternal and fetal blood vessels should not mix, and What
prevent mixing of the blood?
• What links placenta and embryo?
• List the hormones secreted by placenta and their function.
• List the maternal Changes During Pregnancy
• Name and discuss the stages of labor.

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 Cardiovascular system
• Week 3 – angiogenesis starts outside the
embryo in extraembryonic mesoderm
• Angiogenesis process start when
Mesodermal cells → hemangioblasts →
angioblasts
• Aggregate to form masses of cells = blood
islands
• Spaces in the blood islands form lumen of
blood vessels
• Vessels grow + fuse → network of blood
vessels

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 Cardiovascular system
• About 3 weeks after fertilization blood cells
and plasma develop from hemangioblasts
in the blood vessels
• Fifth week liver produce blood vessels
which is replaced by spleen in the twelfth
week.
• Heart forms from the cardiogenic area in
the head end of the splanchnic mesoderm
• mesodermal cells to form a pair of
endocardial tubes
• Tubes fuse to form a single primitive heart
tube
• It later bends on itself-S shaped & begins to
beat
• Joins with blood vessels

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