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Physical Nature of Matter
Matter is Made Up of Particles
For a long time, there were two prevailing schools of thought regarding the nature of
matter. One considered matter to be continuous, like a block of wood, while the other
posited that matter is made up of particles, like sand.
To determine the nature of matter, consider the following activity:
Fill half a beaker with water and mark the water level.
Dissolve some salt or sugar in the water using a glass rod.
Observe any changes in the water level.
The salt or sugar spreads throughout the water, occupying the spaces between
water particles, as illustrated in Fig 1.1.
To further illustrate the particulate nature of matter, consider Activity 1.2:
1. Take 2-3 crystals of potassium permanganate and dissolve them in 100 mL of
water.
2. Take 10 mL of this solution and put it into 90 mL of clear water.
3. Repeat this dilution process 5-8 times.
Even with repeated dilution, the water remains colored, demonstrating that one
crystal of potassium permanganate contains millions of tiny particles that keep
dividing into smaller particles. The same can be observed using 2 mL of Dettol
instead of potassium permanganate, where the smell can be detected even after
repeated dilution. This highlights that particles of matter are very small, beyond our
imagination.
Characteristics of Particles of Matter
Particles of Matter Have Space Between Them
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In Activities 1.1 and 1.2, particles of sugar, salt, Dettol, or potassium permanganate
distribute evenly in water. Similarly, when making tea, coffee, or lemonade, particles
of one type of matter occupy the spaces between particles of the other. This
demonstrates that there is enough space between particles of matter.
Particles of Matter are Continuously Moving
Consider the following activities:
Activity 1.3: Light an incense stick in a corner of your class. Record how close
you need to go to smell it. Then, light the incense stick and observe if you can
smell it from a distance.
Activity 1.4: Place a drop of blue or red ink slowly along the sides of the first
beaker and honey in the same way in the second beaker. Leave them
undisturbed and record your observations. Observe how long it takes for the ink
to spread evenly throughout the water, compared to the honey.
Activity 1.5: Drop a crystal of potassium permanganate into a glass of hot
water and another into cold water. Do not stir. Observe what happens just
above the solid crystal and how it changes over time. Also, observe if the rate
of mixing changes with temperature.
From the above activities, we can conclude that particles of matter are constantly
moving, possessing kinetic energy. As temperature increases, particles move faster,
indicating that kinetic energy increases with temperature.
Particles of matter intermix on their own by getting into the spaces between each
other, a process called diffusion. Heating makes diffusion faster.
Diffusion: Intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their
own.
Particles of Matter Attract Each Other
Consider these activities to understand the attractive forces between particles of
matter:
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Activity 1.6: Form human chains in different ways:
The first group should hold each other from the back and lock arms like
Idu-Mishmi dancers.
The image above shows a group of women in traditional attire, which
represents how the particles in matter are held together with varying degrees
of force.
The second group should hold hands to form a human chain.
The third group should form a chain by touching each other with only their
finger tips.
A fourth group tries to break these chains.
The group that was easiest to break indicates weaker forces between particles.
Activity 1.7: Take an iron nail, a piece of chalk, and a rubber band. Try breaking
them by hammering, cutting, or stretching. The substance that is hardest to
break has particles held together with greater force.
Activity 1.8: Try cutting the surface of water with your fingers. The inability to
cut the water surface indicates the force acting between the water particles.
These activities suggest that particles of matter have forces acting between them,
keeping them together. The strength of this force varies from one kind of matter to
another.
States of Matter
Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. These states arise due to the
variations in the characteristics of the particles of matter.
The Solid State
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Solids have a definite shape, distinct boundaries, and a fixed volume.
They have negligible compressibility and maintain their shape when subjected
to outside force.
Solids may break under force, but it is difficult to change their shape, making
them rigid.
Consider the following examples:
(a) A rubber band: It changes shape under force and regains the same shape
when the force is removed. If excessive force is applied, it breaks.
(b) Sugar and salt: When kept in different jars, they take the shape of the jar,
but the shape of each individual crystal remains fixed.
(c) A sponge: It is a solid, yet we can compress it because it has minute holes
filled with air, which is expelled when pressed.
The Liquid State
Liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume.
They take the shape of the container in which they are kept.
Liquids flow and change shape, so they are not rigid but can be called fluid.
Solids and liquids can diffuse into liquids.
Gases from the atmosphere diffuse and dissolve in water, which is essential for the
survival of aquatic animals and plants. Solids, liquids, and gases can diffuse into
liquids, with the rate of diffusion of liquids being higher than that of solids. Particles
in the liquid state move freely and have greater space between each other compared
to particles in the solid state.
The Gaseous State
Gases are highly compressible compared to solids and liquids.
The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders used for cooking and the oxygen
supplied to hospitals are examples of compressed gases. Compressed natural gas
(CNG) is used as fuel in vehicles due to its high compressibility, which allows large
volumes of gas to be compressed into a small cylinder.
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Gases show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases due to the high speed
of particles and large space between them. The particles in the gaseous state move
about randomly at high speed, hitting each other and the walls of the container. This
creates pressure.
Gases can be easily compressed, as demonstrated by the following activity:
1. Take three syringes and close their nozzles with rubber corks.
2. Remove the pistons from all the syringes.
3. Leaving one syringe untouched, fill water in the second and pieces of chalk in
the third.
4. Insert the pistons back into the syringes, applying some vaseline for smooth
movement.
5. Try to compress the content by pushing the piston in each syringe.
The image below shows a detailed diagram illustrating the three main states of
matter: solid, liquid, and gas, with a clear visual representation of the differences
between the three states of matter at a microscopic level.
Here's a summary of the characteristics of the three states of matter:
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Definite No definite shape No definite shape
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Compressibility Negligible Low High
Rigidity Rigid Fluid Fluid
Diffusion Low High Very high
Intermolecular Space Minimum More than solids Maximum
Molecular Motion Vibrational More freedom to move Random movement
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Effect of Change of Temperature
Water can exist in three states of matter: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water
vapor).
To understand what happens inside matter during a change of state, consider this
activity:
1. Take about 150 g of ice in a beaker and suspend a laboratory thermometer with
its bulb in contact with the ice.
This image presents a laboratory setup involving heating ice and water.
2. Note the temperature when the ice starts melting and when all the ice has
converted into water.
3. Heat the water while stirring until it starts boiling, and monitor the
thermometer until most of the water has vaporized.
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Increasing the temperature of solids increases the kinetic energy of the particles,
causing them to vibrate faster. The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces of
attraction between the particles, allowing them to move more freely. Eventually, the
solid melts and becomes a liquid.
Melting Point: The minimum temperature at which a solid melts to
become a liquid at atmospheric pressure.
The melting point indicates the strength of the force of attraction between particles.
For example, the melting point of ice is 0°C (273 K).
The process of melting, or the change of solid state into liquid state, is also known as
fusion. During melting, the temperature remains the same because the heat energy is
used up in changing the state by overcoming the forces of attraction between the
particles. This heat is absorbed by the ice without showing any rise in temperature
and is known as latent heat.
Latent Heat of Fusion: The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg
of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point.
Particles in water at 0°C (273 K) have more energy compared to particles in ice at the
same temperature because of this latent heat.
When heat energy is supplied to water, the particles move even faster. At a certain
temperature, they have enough energy to break free from the forces of attraction, and
the liquid starts changing into gas.
Boiling Point: The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at
atmospheric pressure.
Boiling is a bulk phenomenon where particles from the bulk of the liquid gain enough
energy to change into the vapor state. For water, this temperature is 373 K (100°C).
Latent Heat of Vaporization: The heat energy required to change 1 kg of a
liquid into gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.
Particles in steam at 373 K (100°C) have more energy than water at the same
temperature because they have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of
vaporization.
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Substances around us change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas on
application of heat, but some substances change directly from solid to gaseous state
and vice versa without changing into the liquid state. This is called sublimation.
Consider this activity:
1. Take some camphor or ammonium chloride.
2. Crush it and put it in a china dish.
3. Put an inverted funnel over the china dish.
4. Put a cotton plug on the stem of the funnel.
This image depicts a laboratory setup for sublimation, where a solid transforms
directly into vapor.
5. Heat slowly and observe.
Sublimation: A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing
into liquid state. Deposition: The direct change of gas to solid without
changing into liquid.
Effect of Change of Pressure
The difference between various states of matter is due to the difference in the
distances between the constituent particles. Applying pressure and reducing
temperature can liquefy gases.
Solid carbon dioxide (CO2) is stored under high pressure and converts directly into
the gaseous state when pressure is decreased to 1 atmosphere, without becoming a
liquid. This is why solid CO2 is known as dry ice.
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Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases, bringing the particles
closer together.
The image shows a piston-cylinder system, illustrating how increasing pressure can
change the state of matter.
Pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it will be
solid, liquid, or gas. The relationship between these states can be summarized in a
diagram:
This image provides a clear visual representation of the relationships between heat,
pressure, and the different states of matter.
Evaporation
Evaporation is the phenomenon of change of liquid into vapors at any temperature
below its boiling point. When water is left uncovered, it slowly changes into vapor,
and wet clothes dry up.
Factors Affecting Evaporation
The rate of evaporation is influenced by several factors:
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Surface Area: Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Increasing the surface
area increases the rate of evaporation. For example, spreading clothes out to
dry increases evaporation.
Temperature: Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of
particles, allowing more particles to enter the vapor state.
Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. High humidity
decreases the rate of evaporation.
Wind Speed: Increasing wind speed moves water vapor away, decreasing the
amount of water vapor in the surrounding air and increasing evaporation.
Evaporation Causes Cooling
In an open vessel, liquid keeps evaporating. The particles of liquid absorb energy
from the surrounding to regain the energy lost during evaporation, making the
surroundings cold.
For example, applying acetone (nail polish remover) on your palm makes the palm
feel cool because the particles gain energy from your palm and evaporate. Similarly,
sprinkling water on a roof after a hot day cools the surface due to the large latent
heat of vaporization of water.
Wearing cotton clothes in summer helps in absorbing sweat and exposing it to the
atmosphere for easy evaporation, keeping the body cool.
Water Droplets on a Glass
When ice-cold water is taken in a tumbler, water droplets appear on the outer
surface because the water vapor present in the air loses energy upon coming in
contact with the cold glass and converts to liquid state.
Model for Demonstrating Liquids and Gases
A simple model can be prepared to demonstrate the behavior of liquids and gases:
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1. Take a transparent jar.
2. Take a big rubber balloon or piece of stretchable rubber sheet.
3. Take a string.
4. Take a few chickpeas or black gram or dry green peas.
5. Put the chickpeas in the jar.
6. Sew the string to the center of the rubber sheet and put some tape to keep it
tied securely.
7. Stretch and tie the rubber sheet on the mouth of the jar.
This image is a diagram illustrating a science experiment.
8. Now run your fingers up and down the string by first tugging at it slowly and
then rapidly.
This model helps visualize the movement of particles in solids, liquids, and gases.
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