Computer Networks

Module -1
Introduction: Characteristics-Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness and Jitter. Components-Message, Sender,
Receiver, Transmission medium and protocol, Topology-Mesh, Star, Tree, Bus, Ring and Hybrid Topologies.
Transmission modes-Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex. Categories of networks LAN, WAN, MAN, the
ISO/OSI reference model, The TCP/IP reference model. Digital- to -Analog Conversion: Amplitude Shift
Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying.

NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The connection need not
be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be used.
Characteristics-Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness and Jitter.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery,
accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.
 Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case
of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that
they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
 Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of
the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the
result.
Components-Message, Sender, Receiver, Transmission medium and protocol
A data communications system has five components
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Topology-Mesh, Star, Tree, Bus, Ring and Hybrid Topologies.

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more devices
connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation
of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

Mesh Topology:
 A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.
 A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology.
 In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers
in that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following
formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2 In a partially connected mesh topology,
at least two of the computers in the network have connections to multiple other computers in that
network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one of the
primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues to operate
normally.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks

Advantages of a mesh topology

 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for reduced
efficiency.
Star Topology:
A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration, every node
connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a
server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used in each computer of
the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to connect computers together.
Advantages of star topology
 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star topology
with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central network
device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers are
disconnected from the network

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
Bus Topology:
A line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are connected to
a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

Ring Topology:
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data path. In a ring
network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their destination. Most ring
topologies allow packets totravel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data
to move in either direction, called bidirectional. The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any
individual connection in the ring is broken, the entire network is affected. Ring topologies may be used in either
local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the network, which
can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than Ethernet cards
and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure

Transmission modes-Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.

Transmission modes also known as communication modes, define how data is transferred between devices in a
network or bus system. They are classified into three types: Simplex Mode, Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-
Duplex Mode.

Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to
send data in one direction.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
Pros of Simplex Mode
 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which simplifies the
communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not required, such as
broadcasting or surveillance.
Cons of Simplex Mode
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.
Half Duplex
Transmission Mode is a communication system whereby data transmission is bi-directional but it does not
happen at the same time. Transmission is always half-duplex or full-duplex where as a device simultaneously
cannot be both transmitting and receiving data. Most of the time it feels like a two-lane highway where on
average, only one automobile is able to advance.
Advantages of Half Duplex Transmission Mode
 Cost-Effective: More resource light and requires less technology to put in place therefore it is cheaper to
use.
 Reduced Complexity: It reduces complications in the communication by ensuring that only one device
transmits information at one time.
 Less Interference: Lower chances of data collision in comparison to other methods of transmission
because they are not simultaneous in nature.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex Transmission Mode
 Slower Data Transfer: Although data transmission is done in both directions these limits data
transmission rates in the overall communication.
 Inefficient for High Traffic: It is not ideal for use in areas with a large network traffic since it may result
into high latency rates.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
Full Duplex Transmission Mode
Full Duplex Transmission Mode enables transmission to take place from both units in equal proportions at a go.
To sum it up, it’s just as when people are driving on a two-line road where they can pass on each other without
having to stop.
Advantages of Full Duplex Transmission Mode
 Faster Communication: It enables one to send data at the same time he or she is receiving data making
it faster.
 Efficient for High Traffic: Proven especially for areas where there is much traffic of data, as this will
actually minimize delays and thereby increase the efficiency.
 Better Utilization of Bandwidth: Ensures that a lot of bandwidth is used by enabling data to be sent in
both directions at the same time.
Disadvantages of Full Duplex Transmission Mode
 Higher Cost: It demands dedicated and improved technology to enable the multiple transmissions at the
same time.
 Increased Complexity: Truly real time application demand more intricate communication process to
cater for bi-directional data traffic.
 Potential for Interference: If not controlled, then higher chances of interference and data collision are
monitored.

Parameters Half-duplex mode Full duplex mode

Definition The sender can send as well as receive The sender can send as well as receive the data at
the data but does one task at a time. the same time.

Data Flow In Half duplex data flow is two- In Full Duplex data flow is two directional and is
directional but one at a time. simultaneous.

Channel usage Usage of one channel while data Usage of two channels while data transmission
transmission. because of splitting of channel for simultaneous
sending and receiving.

Performance Half-duplex mode provides less Full-duplex provides better performance than
performance than full-duplex mode. half-duplex mode.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks

Parameters Half-duplex mode Full duplex mode

Bandwidth In this there is less utilization of In this bandwidth utilization is doubled.

utilization bandwidth during transmission.

Communication Saving bandwidth as it is exchanged The entire capacity is utilized by splitting the
Channel alternately between both sides on a communication channel so that the transmission
single communication channel. in both directions is possible at the same time.

Suitable for It is suitable when data needs to be It is suitable for communicating in both directions
send in both directions, but in opposite simultaneously and without delay.
directions.

Data In this, two systems are connected by a In this, signals are transmitted in both directions;
Transmission point-to-point link to transmit and both end stations can receive and send data at the
receive signals. Both ends can transmit same time. Full duplex mode requires two
signals but one at a time. independent channels for transmission, one for
receiving the data and the other for transmitting
the data.

Examples Walkie-Talkies and Text message are Telephone, Instant Chat rooms, Audio Video
example of half duplex mode. Calls are example of full duplex mode.

Communication Less efficient due to the need to More efficient as both devices can transmit data
efficiency alternate between sending and simultaneously
receiving data

collision Collisions can occur when two devices Collisions are less likely as both devices can
try to transmit data at the same time transmit data simultaneously

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
Categories of networks LAN, WAN, MAN, The ISO/OSI reference model, The TCP/IP reference model.
Types of Network based on size
The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its physical architecture. The
three primary network categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network differs in their characteristics such
as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost.
Basic types
LAN (Local Area Network)
Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room, building,campus) Two or more pc's can from a
LAN to share files, folders, printers, applicationsand other devices. Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used
for connections. Due to short distances, errors and noise are minimum. Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
Example: A computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Design to extend over a large area. Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can
be [Link] can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by organization or individual. Data transfer rate is low
compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's and MAN's. Distinguished in terms of
geographical range. Uses satellites and microwave relays. Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and
varies over the location.
OSI Reference Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different computer systems
communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This
layered approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks

1. The application layer

This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user. Software applications like web
browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to initiate communications. But it should be
made clear that client software applications are not part of the application layer; rather the application
layer is responsible for the protocols and data manipulation that the software relies on to present
meaningful data to the user. Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email communications).
2. The presentation layer
This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by the application layer; in
other words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for applications to consume. The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, encryption, and compression of data. Two communicating devices
communicating may be using different encoding methods, so layer 6 is responsible for translating
incoming data into a syntax that the application layer of the receiving device can understand. If the
devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is responsible for adding the
encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the encryption on the receiver’s end so that it can
present the application layer with unencrypted, readable data. Finally the presentation layer is also
responsible for compressing data it receives from the application layer before delivering it to layer 5.
This helps improve the speed and efficiency of communication by minimizing the amount of data that
will be transferred.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
3. The Session layer
This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between the two devices. The time
between when the communication is opened and closed is known as the session. The session layer
ensures that the session stays open long enough to transfer all the data being exchanged, and then
promptly closes the session in order to avoid wasting resources.
4. The Transport layer
Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two devices. This includes taking
data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks called segments before sending it to layer 3.
The transport layer on the receiving device is responsible for reassembling the segments into data the
session layer can consume. The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control.
Flow control determines an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender with a fast connection
doesn’t overwhelm a receiver with a slow connection. The transport layer performs error control on the
receiving end by ensuring that the data received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.
5. The Network layer
The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two different networks. If the two
devices communicating are on the same network, then the network layer is unnecessary. The network
layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units, called packets, on the sender’s
device, and reassembling these packets on the receiving device. The network layer also finds the best
physical path for the data to reach its destination; this is known as routing.
6. The Data link layer
The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link layer facilitates data transfer
between two devices on the SAME network. The data link layer takes packets from the network layer
and breaks them into smaller pieces called frames. Like the network layer, the data link layer is also
responsible for flow control and error control in intra-network communication (The transport layer only
does flow control and error control for inter-network communications).
7. The physical layer
This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as the cables and switches.
This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a string of 1s and 0s. The
physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that the 1s can be distinguished
from the 0s on both devices.
Advantages of OSI Model
 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.
 Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a
network.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing
efforts on that layer.
TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work together to allow networked computers to
communicate

1. Application Layer
 Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific network applications
 Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data delivery
Typical protocols:
FTP – File Transfer Protocol
 For file transfer
Telnet – Remote terminal protocol
 For remote login on any other computer on the network
SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 For mail transfer
HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 For Web browsing
 Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers Application Presentation Session
Transport Layer
TCP &UDP
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
 Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
 TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists – also called virtual circuit
UDP provides the functions:
 Dividing a chunk of data into segments
 Reassembly segments into the original chunk
 Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
 Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
 Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
 Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session between the respective computers
Internet Layer
 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent networks
to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, 5 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network/Internet,
Session, Presentation, Application Transport, Application

Separate Session layer manages No separate Session layer; handled in Application

connections/synchronization layer

Data formatting/encryption done within Application

Presentation layer handles data formatting/encryption
layer

Theoretical model developed by ISO for

Practical model developed by DoD for Internet use
standardization

Each layer strictly independent with clear interfaces Layers more integrated, less strict boundaries

Defines specific protocols: TCP, UDP, IP, HTTP,

No specific protocols defined, just functions
etc.

Used as reference for teaching/network design Actual protocol stack used by Internet globally

Developed specifically for ARPANET/Internet

Developed before widespread Internet use
implementation

Digital- to -Analog Conversion: Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in the form
of variations in the amplitude of a signal. Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal
when ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.
The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks

To find the process of obtaining this ASK modulated wave, let us learn about the working of the ASK
modulator.
ASK Modulator
The ASK modulator block diagram comprises of the carrier signal generator, the binary sequence from the
message signal and the band-limited filter. Following is the block diagram of the ASK Modulator.

The carrier generator sends a continuous high-frequency carrier. The binary sequence from the message signal
makes the unipolar input to be either High or Low. The high signal closes the switch, allowing a carrier wave.
Hence, the output will be the carrier signal at high input. When there is low input, the switch opens, allowing no
voltage to appear. Hence, the output will be low. The band-limiting filter, shapes the pulse depending upon the
amplitude and phase characteristics of the band-limiting filter or the pulse-shaping filter.

ASK Demodulator
There are two types of ASK Demodulation techniques. They are −
 Asynchronous ASK Demodulation/detection
 Synchronous ASK Demodulation/detection
The clock frequency at the transmitter when matches with the clock frequency at the receiver, it is known as a
Synchronous method, as the frequency gets synchronized. Otherwise, it is known as Asynchronous.
Asynchronous ASK Demodulator
The Asynchronous ASK detector consists of a half-wave rectifier, a low pass filter, and a comparator.
Following is the block diagram for the same.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
The modulated ASK signal is given to the half-wave rectifier, which delivers a positive half output. The low
pass filter suppresses the higher frequencies and gives an envelope detected output from which the comparator
delivers a digital output.
Synchronous ASK Demodulator
Synchronous ASK detector consists of a Square law detector, low pass filter, a comparator, and a voltage limiter.
Following is the block diagram for the same.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal
varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.
The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in frequency for a
binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.
The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along with its input.

FSK Modulator
The FSK modulator block diagram comprises of two oscillators with a clock and the input binary sequence.
Following is its block diagram.

The two oscillators, producing a higher and a lower frequency signals, are connected to a switch along with an
internal clock. To avoid the abrupt phase discontinuities of the output waveform during the transmission of the
message, a clock is applied to both the oscillators, internally. The binary input sequence is applied to the
transmitter so as to choose the frequencies according to the binary input.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
FSK Demodulator
There are different methods for demodulating a FSK wave. The main methods of FSK detection are
asynchronous detector and synchronous detector. The synchronous detector is a coherent one, while
asynchronous detector is a non-coherent one.
Asynchronous FSK Detector
The block diagram of Asynchronous FSK detector consists of two band pass filters, two envelope detectors, and
a decision circuit. Following is the diagrammatic representation.

The FSK signal is passed through the two Band Pass Filters (BPFs), tuned to Space and Mark frequencies. The
output from these two BPFs look like ASK signal, which is given to the envelope detector. The signal in each
envelope detector is modulated asynchronously.
The decision circuit chooses which output is more likely and selects it from any one of the envelope detectors. It
also re-shapes the waveform to a rectangular one.
Synchronous FSK Detector
The block diagram of Synchronous FSK detector consists of two mixers with local oscillator circuits, two band
pass filters and a decision circuit. Following is the diagrammatic representation.

The FSK signal input is given to the two mixers with local oscillator circuits. These two are connected to two
band pass filters. These combinations act as demodulators and the decision circuit chooses which output is more
likely and selects it from any one of the detectors. The two signals have a minimum frequency separation.
For both of the demodulators, the bandwidth of each of them depends on their bit rate. This synchronous
demodulator is a bit complex than asynchronous type demodulators.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is changed
by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-
metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth communications.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
 This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier
takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
 BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, for message
being the digital information.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
 This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals such
as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
 If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values also,
depending upon the requirement.
BPSK Modulator
The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance modulator which has the carrier sine
wave as one input and the binary sequence as the other input. Following is the diagrammatic representation.

The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator, which multiplies the two signals applied at the
input. For a zero binary input, the phase will be 0° and for a high input, the phase reversal is of 180°.
Following is the diagrammatic representation of BPSK Modulated output wave along with its given input.

The output sine wave of the modulator will be the direct input carrier or the inverted (180° phase shifted) input
carrier, which is a function of the data signal.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S

Computer Networks
BPSK Demodulator
The block diagram of BPSK demodulator consists of a mixer with local oscillator circuit, a bandpass filter, a
two-input detector circuit. The diagram is as follows.

By recovering the band-limited message signal, with the help of the mixer circuit and the band pass filter, the
first stage of demodulation gets completed. The base band signal which is band limited is obtained and this
signal is used to regenerate the binary message bit stream.
In the next stage of demodulation, the bit clock rate is needed at the detector circuit to produce the original
binary message signal. If the bit rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency, then the bit clock regeneration is
simplified. To make the circuit easily understandable, a decision-making circuit may also be inserted at the 2nd
stage of detection.

Dept of Computer Applications CIT, Mandya Prof. Bhaskar K S