Topic 01

Real Numbers and its Properties

M. Guru Prem Prasad

IIT Guwahati

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College Mathematics

Sets, Numbers
Numbers: Algebraic Operations, Order Relations
Functions
Absolute Value/Modulus, Distance, Metric, Convergence of Sequences
Functions: Limit, Continuity
Rate of Change, Differentiation
Summation, Integration
Solving Equations
Probability and Statistics
Algebra: Groups, Fields, Rings, Vector Spaces, Normed Spaces, Innerproduct Spaces
Analysis: Metric Spaces, Toplogical Spaces
Differential Equations: Ordinary DEs, Partial DEs; Integral Equations
Probability and Statistics
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Topic 01: Learning Outcome

We learn
Real Numbers R
Algebraic Operations on R: Addition, Multiplication
R is a field.
Order relation on R. It is an ordered field
Properties in an Ordered Field of R.
Bounded Above, Bounded Below, Supremum, Infimum
The LUB Property/ Supremum Property/ Completeness Property of R and its Applications
Sets: Finite, Infinite, Countably Infinite, Uncountable

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Number Systems

Set of all Natural Numbers N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}.

Set of all Whole Numbers W = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
Set of all Integers Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
m 
Set of all Rational Numbers Q = : m ∈ Z and n ∈ Z \ {0} .
n
Set of all Irrational Numbers. It consists of all those numbers having non-terminating and
non-recurring decimal representations.
Set of all Real Numbers R = Q ∪ Set of all irrational numbers .
Set of all Complex Numbers C = R2 = {(x, y) : x and y are real numbers }.

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Algebraic Operations on R

Consider the set R of all real numbers.

Addition
For every pair of real numbers a and b, we can form the sum of a and b, which is another real
number denoted by a + b. We call + as the addition operation on R.

Multiplication
For every pair of real numbers a and b, we can form the product of a and b, denoted by a · b or
a × b or simply by ab. We call · or × as the multiplication operation on R.

Given real numbers a and b, there is exactly one real number a + b and exactly one real
number a · b.

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Groups, Abelian Groups
Definition
Let G be a nonempty set. Let ∗ be a binary operation on G which is a function from G × G to G.
Then, (G, ∗) is said to be a group if it satisfies the following property:
1 Closure Property: a ∗ b ∈ G for all a and b in G.
2 Associative Property: a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for all a, b and c in G.
3 Existence of Identity Element: There exists an element e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a for
all a in G.
4 Existence of Inverse Element: For each a in G, there exists an element in G denoted by
a−1 and called the inverse element of a such that a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e.

Definition
A group (G, ∗) is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies the following property.
Commutative Property: a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a and b in G.
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Examples of Groups

The set Z of all integers with respect to addition + operation forms an abelian group.
The set Q of all rational numbers with respect to addition + operation forms an abelian
group.
The set R of all real numbers with respect to addition + operation forms an abelian group.
The set C of all complex numbers with respect to addition + operation forms an abelian
group.
The set Q∗ = Q \ {0} with respect to multiplication × operation forms an abelian group.
The set R∗ = R \ {0} with respect to multiplication × operation forms an abelian group.
The set C∗ = C \ {0} with respect to multiplication × operation forms an abelian group.
The set S of all real-valued bijections f : R → R under function composition is a
nonabelian group.

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Field

Definition
A field is a nonempty set F with two operations, called addition and multiplication, which
satisfy the following so-called field axioms (A), (M) and (D):
(A) Axioms for addition
(A1) If x ∈ F and y ∈ F , then their sum x + y is in F .
(A2) Addition is commutative: x + y = y + x for all x, y ∈ F .
(A3) Addition is associative: (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) for all x, y, z ∈ F .
(A4) Existence of Additive Identity: There is an element in F , denoted by 0, such that 0 + x = x
for every x ∈ F .
(A5) Existence of Additive Inverse: To every x ∈ F corresponds an element in F , denoted by
−x such that x + (−x) = 0.

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Continuation of the Definition of Field

(M) Axioms for multiplication

(M1) If x ∈ F and y ∈ F , then their product xy is in F .
(M2) Multiplication is commutative: xy = yx for all x, y ∈ F .
(M3) Multiplication is associative: (xy)z = x(yx) for all x, y, z ∈ F .
(M4) Existence of Multiplicative Identity: There is an element in F , denoted by 1 and 1 , 0 such
that 1x = x for all x ∈ F .
(M5) Existence of Multiplicative Inverse: If x ∈ F and x , 0, then there exists an element in F
denoted by 1/x such that x · (1/x) = 1.
(D) The Distributive Law Distributive property of multiplication over addition
(D) x(y + z) = xy + xz holds for all x, y, z ∈ F .
We write it as (F, +, ·) is a field.

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Short Definition of Field

Definition
A field is a nonempty set F with two operations, called addition + and multiplication ·, which
satisfy the following three condiitons.
1 Addition Operation: (F, +) is an abelian group.
2 Multiplication Operation: (F \ {0}, ·) is an abelian group, where 0 is the identity element
with respect to the addition operation + on F .
3 Distributive Law: Distributive property of multiplication over addition

x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z for all x, y, z ∈ F.

We write it as (F, +, ·) is a field.

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In a field (F, +, ·),
The identity element with respect to addition + operation is denoted by 0.
The identity element with respect to multiplication · operation is denoted by 1.
Example
The set Q of all rational numbers with usual addition + and multiplication · is a field.

Example
The set R of all real numbers with usual addition + and multiplication · is a field.

Example
The set C of all complex numbers with usual addition + and multiplication · is a field.

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Consequences of Addition Axioms

Theorem
In a field (F, +, ·), the axioms for addition + imply the following statements.
1 If x + y = x + z, then y = z.
2 If x + y = x, then y = 0.
3 If x + y = 0, then y = −x.
4 −(−x) = x.

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Consequences of Multiplication Axioms

Theorem
In a field (F, +, ·), the axioms for multiplication · imply the following statements.
1 If x , 0 and xy = xz, then y = z.
2 If x , 0 and xy = x, then y = 1.
3 If x , 0 and xy = 1, then y = 1x .
4 If x , 0, then 1
= x.
( 1x )

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Consequences of Field Axioms

Theorem
In a field (F, +, ·), the field axioms imply the following statements.
1 0x = 0.
2 If x , 0 and y , 0, then xy , 0.
3 (−x)y = −(xy) = x(−y).
4 (−x)(−y) = xy.

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Well-ordering property of N

Theorem (Well-Ordering Property of N)

Every non-empty subset of N has a smallest element. That is, If S ⊆ N and if S , Ø then there
exists an m ∈ S such that m ≤ k for all k ∈ S .

On the basis of the well-ordering property, one can derive a version of principle of
mathematical induction, an important and powerful method of proof though used to prove only
particular types of statements, that is expressed in terms of subsets of N.

Theorem (Principle of Mathematical Induction)

Let S be a subset of N that possesses the following two properties:
(a) The number 1 ∈ S .
(b) For every k ∈ N, if k ∈ S then k + 1 ∈ S .
Then, we have S = N.

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Theorem (Principle of Mathematical Induction)
For each n ∈ N, let P(n) be a statement about n.
Suppose that
(a) P(1) is true.
(b) For every k ∈ N, if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

Theorem (Second Principle of Mathematical Induction)

For each n ∈ N, let P(n) be a statement about n.
Suppose that
(a) P(1), P(2), . . ., P(m) are true.
(b) For k ∈ N, k ≥ m, if P(i) is true for i = 1, 2, . . ., k, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

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Theorem (Modified Principle of Mathematical Induction)
For each n ∈ N, let P(n) be a statement about n.
Suppose that
(a) For some n0 ∈ N, P(n0 ) is true.
(b) For every k ∈ N, k ≥ n0 , if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N with n ≥ n0 .

Example

P(n) : (2n + 1) < 2n .

The above statement is true for n ≥ 3.

It must be remembered that careless use of the principle of mathematical induction can lead to
obviously absurd conclusions.

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Ordered Set

Definition
Let S be a set. An ordered set on S is a relation, denoted by <, with the following two
properties:
1 If x ∈ S and y ∈ S , then one and only one of the statements

x < y, x = y, y<x

is true.
2 Let x, y, z be in S . If x < y and y < z, then x < z.
The statement x < y may be read as x is less than y or x is smaller than y or x precedes y.

Definition
An ordered set is a set S in which an order is defined.
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Example
Q is an ordered set. R is an ordered set.

The notation x ≤ y indicates that

x<y or x = y.

In other words, x ≤ y is the negation of x > y.

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Bounded Above, Bounded Below, Bounded

Definition
Let R be an ordered set. Let S be a nonempty subset of R.
1 The set S is said to be bounded above if there exists a number u ∈ R such that s ≤ u for
all s ∈ S . Each such number u is called an upper bound of S .
2 The set S is said to be bounded below if there exists a number w ∈ R such that w ≤ s for
all s ∈ S . Each such number w is called a lower bound of S .
3 The set S is said to be bounded if S is both bounded above and bounded below.

Definition
Let S be a nonempty subset of an ordered set R. The set S is said to be unbounded if S is
NOT bounded.

The empty set ∅ in an ordered set R is bounded, because every number in R is its upper
bound as well as lower bound.
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Examples

The set S = {x ∈ R : x < 2} is bounded above. 2 is an upper bound of S . Any real

number r ≥ 2 is an upper bound of S . The set S is not bounded below. Therefore, S is
unbounded.
The set S = {x ∈ R : −5 < x < 2} is bounded above and bounded below. 2 is an upper
bound of S . Any real number r ≥ 2 is an upper bound of S . −5 is a lower bound of S . Any
real number r ≤ −5 is a lower bound of S . The set S is bounded.
The set Z, Q, R are not bounded below and not bounded above. They are unbounded.

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Supremum or Least Upper Bound

Definition
Let S be a nonempty subset of an ordered set R. If S is bounded above, then a number u is
said to be a supremum or least upper bound of S if it satisfies the following conditions:
1 u is an upper bound of S ,
2 if v is any upper bound of S , then u ≤ v.

It is observed that there can be only one supremum of a given subset S of R. If the supremum
of a set S exists, we will denote it by sup S or sup (S ) or lub S or lub (S ).
Example
If S = {x ∈ R : x < 2}, then sup (S ) = 2.
If S = {1/n : n ∈ N}, then sup (S ) = 1.

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Infimum or Greatest Lower Bound

Definition
Let S be a nonempty subset of an ordered set R. If S is bounded below, then a number w is
said to be a infimum or greatest lower bound of S if it satisfies the following conditions:
1 w is a lower bound of S ,
2 if v is any lower bound of S , then v ≤ w.

It is observed that there can be only one infimum of a given subset S of R. If the infimum of a
set S exists, we will denote it by inf S or inf (S ) or glb S or glb (S ).
Example
If S = {x ∈ R : −5 < x < 2}, then inf (S ) = −5.
If S = {1/n : n ∈ N}, then inf (S ) = 0.

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Properties of Supremum

Let S be a nonempty subset of an ordered set R.

Theorem
A real number u is the supremum of S if and only if u satisfies the following two conditions:
1 s ≤ u for all s ∈ S .
2 If v < u, then there exists an element s ∈ S such that v < s.

Theorem
An upper bound u of S is the supremum of S if and only if for every  > 0, there exists an
element s ∈ S such that (u − ) < s.

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Properties of Infimum

Let S be a nonempty subset of an ordered set R.

Theorem
A real number w is the infimum of S if and only if w satisfies the following two conditions:
1 w ≤ s for all s ∈ S .
2 If v > w, then there exists an element s ∈ S such that s < v.

Theorem
A lower bound w of S is the infimum of S if and only if for every  > 0, there exists an element
s ∈ S such that s < (w + ).

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Least Upper Bound Property

Definition
An ordered set S is said to have the Least Upper Bound Property if the following is true:
If E ⊆ S , E is not empty, and E is bounded above, then sup E exists in S .

Example
The ordered set Q does NOT have the least upper bound property because the set
E = {x ∈ Q : x2 < 2} is bounded above and sup E does not exist in Q.

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Greatest Lower Bound Property

Definition
An ordered set S is said to have the Greatest Lower Bound Property if the following is true:
If E ⊆ S , E is not empty, and E is bounded below, then inf E exists in S .

Example
The ordered set Q does NOT have the greatest lower bound property because the set
E = {x ∈ Q : x2 > 2} is bounded below and inf E does not exist in Q.

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LUB Property =⇒ GLB Property

Theorem
Let S be an ordered set. If S has the least upper bound property, then S has the greatest
lower bound property.

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Ordered Field

Definition
An ordered field is a field F which is also an ordered set, such that
1 If x, y, z in F and y < z, then x + y < x + z.
2 If x and y in F with x > 0 and y > 0, then xy > 0.

If x > 0, we call x positive.

If x < 0, we call x negative.

Example
(Q, +, ·) with less than < order relation is an ordered field.

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Properties in an Ordered Field

Theorem
The following statements are true in every ordered field.
1 If x > 0, then −x < 0, and vice versa.
2 If x > 0 and y < z, then xy < xz.
3 If x < 0 and y < z, then xy > xz.
4 If x , 0, then x2 > 0.
5 1 > 0.
6 If xy > 0, then either both x and y are positive or both are negative.
7 If 0 < x < y, then 0 < 1
y < 1x .

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Set of all Real Numbers

Theorem
There exists an ordered field R which has the Least Upper Bound Property. Moreover, R
contains the rational numbers Q as a subfield.
The members of R are called real numbers.
We denote the set of all real numbers as R.

Subfield means that the operation of addition and multiplication in R, when applied to elements
of Q, coincide with the usual addition + and usual multiplication · on Q.
That is, (R, +, ·) is an ordered field which has the LUB Property and it contains (Q, +, ·) as a
subfield.

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The Completeness Property of R: Alternative Way of Saying

Let R denote the set of all real numbers.

Theorem (The Completeness Property of R)
Every nonempty subset of R which is bounded above has a supremum in R.

The completeness property of R is also called as the Supremum Property or Least Upper
Bound Property of R.

From the Supremum Property of R, the following can be deduced.

Infimum Property
Every nonempty subset of R which is bounded below has an infimum in R.

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 Applications of the Completeness Property of R
(or Supremum or LUB Property of R)

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Archimedean Property of R

Theorem (Archimedean Property of R)

If x ∈ R, there is a natural number n such that x < n.

The equivalent version of Archimedean Property of R is as follows:

Story: x = Tortoise, y = Rabbit → Race between them. Initially x < y. But Tortoise has a
positive attitude x > 0 and won the race finally ∃n ∈ N, nx > y.

Theorem (Archimedean Property of R)

If x ∈ R, y ∈ R and x > 0, there is a natural number n such that nx > y.

Corollary
Let x be a positive real number. Then there exists a natural number n such that (n − 1) ≤ x < n.

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 √
Existence of 2 or Existence of x1/n
√
Theorem (Existence of 2)
There exists a positive real number x such that x2 = 2.

Theorem (Existence of n-th Root of a Positive Real Number)

For every real number x > 0 and every natural number n, there is one and only one real
number y such that yn = x.

Corollary
If a and b are positive real numbers and if n is a natural number, then
1 1 1
(ab) n = a n b n .

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Density Theorems

Theorem (Density of Rationals)

Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then there exists a rational number r such that
x < r < y.

Theorem (Density of Irrationals)

Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then there exists an irrational number z such that
x < z < y.

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Functions, one-one, onto
Definition
Consider two sets A and B, whose elements may be any objects, whatsoever, and suppose
that with each element x of A there is associated, in some manner, an element of B, which we
denote by f (x). Then, f is said to a be function or map from A to B (or a mapping of A into B).
The set A is called the domain of f (we also say f is defined on A), and the elements f (x) are
the values of f . The set of all values of f is called the range of f .

Definition
Let f : A → B be a function. If f maps distinct points to distinct points (that is, x1 , x2 ∈ A with
x1 , x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) , f (x2 )), we say that f is one-one or 1-1 or injective.

Definition
Let f : A → B be a function. If f (A) = { f (x) : x ∈ A} is equal to the set B, we say that f is onto
or surjective.
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Bijective, One-to-One Correspondence

Definition
Let f : A → B be a function. If f is both one-one and onto, then it is said to be bijective or a
one-to-one correspondence.

Definition
Let A and B two nonempty sets. If there exists a bijective mapping between A and B, then we
say that A and B have the same cardinal number, or briefly, that A and B are equivalent, and
we write A ∼ B.

For two finite sets A and B, we have A ∼ B if and only if A and B contain the same number of
elements. For infinite sets, however, the idea of having the same number of elements
becomes quite vague, where as the notion of one-to-one correspondence retains its clarity.

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Finite, Infinite, Countably Infinite, Uncountable

Definition
The empty set ∅ is said to have 0 elements.
A set S is said to n elements, where n ∈ N, if there exists a bijection map from the set
Nn = {1, 2, . . . , n} onto the set S .
A set S is said to be finite if S is either empty or it has n elements for some n ∈ N.
A set S is said to be infinite if S is NOT finite.
A set S is said to be countably infinite or if there exists a bijection map from the set
N = {1, 2, · · · } onto the set S .
A set S is said to be uncountable if S is neither finite nor countably infinite.
A set S is said to be at most countable if S is finite or countably infinite.

A countably infinite set is also called enumerable or denumerable or countable.

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Examples/ Results

The set N is countably infinite.

The set Z is countably infinite, because f : N → Z defined by f (2k − 1) = k − 1 and
f (2k) = −k is bijective.
Every infinite subset of a countably infinite set is countably infinite.
∞
[
Let {S n }, n = 1, 2, . . ., be a sequence of countably infinite sets. Let S = S n . Then, S is
n=1
countably infinite. [ n o
The set Q is countably infinite, because Q = An , where An = mn : m ∈ Z for n ∈ N.
n∈N
The set R \ Q is uncountable.
The set R is uncountable.
Any interval (a, b) or (a, b] or [a, b) or [a, b] with a < b in R is uncountable.
The set R2 = R × R is uncountable. The set Rn , n ∈ N is uncountable.
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Example of an Uncountable Set

Theorem
Let A be the set of all sequences whose elements are the digits 0 and 1. Then, the set A is
uncountable.

The idea of the proof was first used by Cantor, and is called Cantor’s Diagonal Process.

Using above theorem, we can conclude the closed interval [0, 1] is uncountable.
Every real number x ∈ [0, 1] can be represented in binary expansion (base 2) as

x = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 · · · , where xi ∈ {0, 1}.

The fractional part is a sequence whose elements are the digits 0 or 1.

Since [0, 1] (which is a subset of R) is uncountable, we conclude that R is uncountable.

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