CHAPTERBI

OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

1.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oBi
ochemi
str
yandBi
ologi
cal
Mol
ecul
es

Alll
i
vingorganismsaremadeupofahi ghl
yor gani
zedmixt
ureofchemical
compounds.
Thebranchofbi ol
ogythatdeal
swit
hthestudyofchemicalcomponent
sandthe
chemicalprocessesoccurr
ingi
nli
vi
ngorganismsiscal
ledBiochemi
str
y.

Pr
otopl
ast/Cel
l
ularChemi
cal
Composi
ti
on

Theli
vingmatterofacell
(protopl
asm)i sphysi
call
ycomposedofor gani
candi
nor
gani
c
[Link]
ivechemicalcomposit
ionofatypi
cal
mammal iancel
lversusabacteri
alcell
toemphasi zethesepr
oport
ions:

 Wat
er:
70%i
nbact
eri
alcel
l
s,70%i
nmammal
i
ancel
l
s.

 Pr
otei
ns:
15%i
nbact
eri
alcel
l
s,18%i
nmammal
i
ancel
l
s.

 Car
bohy
drat
es:
3%i
nbact
eri
alcel
l
s,4%i
nmammal
i
ancel
l
s.

 Li
pids:
2%i
nbact
eri
alcel
l
s,3%i
nmammal
i
ancel
l
s.

 Nucl
eicAci
ds(
DNA+RNA)
:7%i
nbact
eri
alcel
l
s,1.
35%i
nmammal
i
ancel
l
s.

 Inor
gani
cIons(
Na+,
K+,
Cl-
,Ca2+,
etc.
):1%i
nbact
eri
alcel
l
s,1%i
nmammal
i
an
cell
s.

[Link]
assi
fi
cat
ionofBi
ologi
cal
Mol
ecul
es

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionA:
BasedonChemi
cal
Nat
ure

 Inorgani
cMol ecul
es:Compoundsthatgener
all
ylackcar
bon-hydr
ogenbondsand
arerelat
ivel
[Link]
ncl
udeWat er
,aci
ds,bases,
sal
ts,andgasesl
ike
carbondioxide(CO2)andoxygen(
O2) .

 Organi
cMol ecules:
Carbon-cont
aini
ngcompoundswher ecarbonatomsare
coval
entl
ybondedt ohydrogen,oxygen,ni
tr
ogen,
andot herel
[Link]
majorcategori
esoforganicbiomolecul
esareCarbohy
dr at
es,Pr
otei
ns,Li
pids,
andNucleicAcids.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionB:
BasedonMol
ecul
arWei
ghtandSi
ze

 Mi
cromol
ecul
es(
Monomer
s/LowMol
ecul
arWei
ght
):Smal
l
,lowmol
ecul
ar
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

weightmolecul
esthatexistf
reel
yinthecytopl
asm orser
veasbuildi
ngblocks.
Examplesincl
udewater,aminoacids,monosacchar
ides(
glucose)
,nucl
eoti
des,
fat
tyacids,
andgly
cerol.

 Macr omol ecules( Pol

ymers/HighMol ecularWeight):Hi
ghlycomplex,massiv
e
str
uct ur
esf ormedbyt heli
nkageofnumer ousmi cromolecul
esthroughaprocess
cal
ledpol ymer izati
on(condensat
ion/dehydrati
onsy nt
hesis)
.Examplesincl
ude
polysacchar i
des( star
ch,gl
ycogen,cell
ulose),
polypepti
des(prot
eins)
,and
polynucleotides( DNAandRNA) .

3.I
mpor
tanceofBi
ologi
cal
Mol
ecul
es

Liv
ingsyst
emsr el
ycompl
etel
yonthespeci
fi
cchemicalpr
oper
tiesoft
hesemol
ecul
es
tosust
ainli
fe,
maintai
nst
ruct
ure,
andexecut
emetaboli
cfunct
ions.

[Link]
ruct
ural
Rol
e

Bi
ologi
cal
mol
ecul
esf
ormt
hephy
sical
framewor
kofcel
l
sandt
issues:

 Cel
lBoundar
ies:
Phospholi
pidsandst
ruct
ural
prot
einscombi
net
ofor
mthef
lui
d-
mosai
cplasmamembr ane.

 PlantFr
amework:Cel
l
ulose(ast
ruct
ural
pol
ysacchar
ide)f
ormst
her
igi
dpl
ant
cellwal
l
,pr
ovi
dingtur
gorsuppor
t.

 Exoskel
etonsandFungi
:Chi
ti
nfor
mst
hecel
lwal
loff
ungi
andt
het
oughout
er
shel
lofarthr
opods.

[Link]
ional
andCat
aly
ticRol
e

 EnzymaticAct
ivit
y:Vi
rt
uall
yal
lchemical
react
ionsi
nsidet
hecellar
ecatal
yzedby
speci
ali
zedprotei
nscall
[Link]
houtenzymes,metabol
i
cpathways
wouldstall
.

 Chemical
Messengers:Hormones(whi
chcanbeprot
einsl
ikei
nsul
i
norlipi
dsli
ke
st
eroi
ds)actaschemicalsi
gnal
ingmol
ecul
estocoordi
nat
ebodyfunct
ions.

 Defense:Ant
ibodi
esarespeci
ali
zeddefensi
vepr
otei
nspr
oducedbyt
hei
mmune
system t
oneutral
i
zeforei
gnpathogens.

[Link]
imar
yandSt
orageSour
cesofEner
gy
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 I
mmediateEner
gy :
Monosacchar
ides,
speci
fi
cal
l
ygl ucose,
arethepr
imar
yfuel
br
okendownduringgl
ycol
ysi
sandcellul
arr
espi
rat
iont opr
oduceATP.

 Stor
ageCarbohydr
ates:Organi
smsst
oreexcessener
gyi
nhi
gh-
mol
ecul
ar-
wei
ght
poly
mersthatdonotdistur
bosmoti
cbalance:

o Pl
ant
sst
oreener
gyasSt
arch.

o Ani
mal
sandFungi
stor
eener
gyi
nthel
i
verandmuscl
esasGl
ycogen.

 High-Yi
eldEner
gySt or
age:Li
pids(Tr
iglycer
ides/Fats)ser
veasconcent
rated,
l
ong-ter
m energyreser
[Link] gherproport
ionofC-Hbondsandless
oxygencompar edtocarbohydr
ates,
li
pidsyieldtwi
cetheamountofchemi cal
energypergram uponoxidat
ion.

[Link]
orageandExpr
essi
onofGenet
icI
nfor
mat
ion

 DNA(Deoxyri
bonucl
eicAci
d):Act
sast hepermanenther
edit
aryar
chi
ve,saf
ely
st
ori
nginst
ructi
onsforal
lcel
l
ularpr
oteinsandtr
ait
sacrossgener
ati
ons.

 RNA(Ribonucl
eicAci
d):
Funct
ionsastheacti
vei
nter
mediaryt
hatt
ransl
atest
he
genet
icscri
ptofDNAintof
uncti
onalpr
otei
nsatt
heribosomes.

I
ntr
oduct
iont
otheI
mpor
tanceofWat
er

Water(H2O)i
sthemostabundanti
nor
ganiccompoundi
nall
li
vi
ngorgani
sms.I
tforms
thepri
marymedium ofl
i
feandserv
esastheprot
opl
asmicmatr
ixi
nwhichal
lmetabol
i
c
acti
vi
ti
esoccur
.

Quant
it
ati
veDat
a

Thetotalamountofwaterv
ari
essigni
fi
cant
lyacr
ossdi
ff
erentor
gani
smsandspeci
fi
c
ti
ssues,ashi
ghli
ghtedi
nprovi
nci
altext
books:

 Over
allRange:Waterconst
it
utesr
oughl
y65%t
o89%oft
het
otal
bodywei
ghtof
mostli
vingorgani
sms.

 Jel
l
yfi
sh:
Composedofappr
oxi
mat
ely99%wat
er.

 HumanBr
ainCel
l
s:Cont
ainabout85%wat
er.

 HumanBoneCel
l
s:Cont
ainabout20%wat
er.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

Bi
ologi
cal
l
yImpor
tantPr
oper
ti
esofWat
er

[Link]
ari
tyofWat
er

 ChemicalNat
ure:
Awat ermolecul
eiscomposedofoneoxy genatom cov
alent
ly
[Link]
ghl
yelect
ronegati
vecomparedto
hydr
ogen,pul
li
ngthesharedel
ectr
onsclosert
oit
self.

 ChargeDist
ri
bution:
Thisasymmet ri
calshar
ingcreat
esapol
armolecul
e,wher
e
theoxygenatom carr
iesaparti
alnegat
ivechargeandeachhydr
ogenatom
carr
iesapart
ialposi
tivechar
ge.

 HydrogenBondi ng:Theparti
alposi
ti
vehy dr
ogenofonewat ermoleculei
s
el
ectrostati
call
yattr
actedtothepar
tial
negativ
eoxy genofanadjacentwater
[Link]
venetworkofhydrogenbondsgiveswaterit
sr emar
kable
st
ructuralstabi
li
tyanduniquephysi
calpropert
ies.

[Link]
erasaUni
ver
sal
Sol
vent

Duetoi
tshighl
ypolarnat
ure,
wat
eract
sasanexcel
l
entsol
ventf
orawi
dev
ari
etyof
chemi
calsubst
ances:

 IonicSubstances:Whenani oniccompound( l
ikesodium chloride,
NaCl)ispl
aced
i
nwat er
,thepositi
vepolesofwat erat
tracttheanions(Cl-)andt henegati
ve
polesattractthecati
ons(Na+).Thisseparatestheions,sur r
oundingthem wit
ha
shellofwat ermolecul
es(hydrati
onshells)
,causingthem t odissolv
[Link]
soluti
on,thesefreeionsmov erandomlyandr eacteffi
cientlywithother
mol ecul
es.

 PolarNon-I
oni
cSubstances:Solubl
eorgani
cmol ecul
escontai
ningchar
ged
groups(suchasgl
ucose,sucrose,andaminoacids)di
ssol
vereadil
yinwat
erby
forminghydr
ogenbondswi t
ht hewatermolecul
es.

 InsolubleNon- PolarSubstances:Non-
polarmolecules(suchasf at
s,li
pids,
and
certainstructuralprot
eins)donotpossesschargesandar ecompl etel
yinsolubl
e
i
nwat [Link]
li
tyiscri
ti
call
yimportantf
orcellsurvi
valbecauseitall
ows
thef ormationofst abl
ecellul
arbarr
ier
s,suchast heli
pid-
bil
ayerplasma
membr ane.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

[Link]
ghSpeci
fi
cHeatCapaci
ty

 Def
ini
ti
on:Thespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofasubst
anceisdef
inedasthenumberof
cal
ori
esrequi
redt
oraiset
hetemperatur
eof1gram oft
hatsubst
anceby1⁰C

 Text
bookVal
ue:
Wat
erhasar
emar
kabl
yhi
ghspeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyof1.
0.

 Biol
ogi calSigni
ficance: Thishighval
ueisduet othepresenceofnumer ous
hydrogenbonds, whi chabsor batremendousamountofheatener gybef ore
breakingandal lowi ngwat ermolecul
estomov efast
er(rai
setemper ature).
Consequent ly,wat eractsasanexcept i
onal t
hermalstabil
i
zerortemper ature
[Link]
vi
ngorganismsf r
om sudden,drast
ict hermal
changesi ntheext er nalenvir
onment,maintai
ningastableint
ernaltemper atur
e
necessar yforenzy mef unction.

[Link]
erasaReagentandRol
einHy
drol
ysi
s

Wat
eri
snotjustani
nertsuspensi
onmedi
um;
iti
sanact
ivechemi
cal
react
ant(
reagent
)
i
nmanyvi
tal
biochemicalpat
hways:

 Hydr
olysi
s:Thisisakeycat aboli
cprocesswher ecomplexmacromol
ecules
(
polymerslikestarch,
prot
eins,andlipi
ds)arebrokendownint
osimpler
micr
omolecules( monomersl i
keglucose,aminoacids,
andfat
tyaci
ds)through
t
hechemi caladditi
onofwat ermolecul
es.

 Photosynthesi
s:Duri
ngt hel
ight-
dependentreacti
onsofphotosynthesi
s,wat
er
act
sasar awmat eri
al.I
tundergoesphotol
ysis(spli
tt
ingbyli
ghtenergy)t
oyiel
d
el
ectronsandpr ot
ons( H+),
whichareessentialf
orreducingNADP+t oNADPH,
whil
er el
easingoxygengasO2i ntotheatmospher e.

[Link]
onandAdhesi
on(
AscentofSap)

Thestr
uct
uralbehavi
orofwat
eri
nsi
depl
ant
srel
i
esheav
il
yont
wof
orcesgov
ernedby
hydr
ogenbonding:

 Cohesion:Themutualfor
ceofattr
acti
onbetweensimil
armolecul
[Link]
moleculessti
ckt
ightl
ytooneanotherduetohydr
[Link]
gh
cohesi
v efor
cegi
veswat eranexcept
ional
l
yhightensi
l
estrength.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 Adhesion:Theforceofatt
ract
ionbet
weencomplet
elydi
ff
erentmol
ecul
[Link]
er
moleculesreadi
lyadher
etootherpol
arorhydr
ophi
li
csurf
aces.

 Biologi
calSi
gnifi
cance:I
nsi dethenarr
owxy l
em vesselsofplants,
cohesion
keepst hewatermoleculeslockedtogetherinasolid,unbr
okencol umn,whil
e
adhesionhelpsthem sti
ckt othecell
ulose-l
i
nedxy l
em [Link],
these
forcesgeneratethedri
vi
ngpul lneededf ort
heascentofsap, mov i
ngwat erf
rom
thedeepestrootstothel eavesoftal
ltreeswithoutbreaki
ngt hecolumn.

6.I
oni
zat
ionofWat
er

I
oni
zat
ionofWat
er

Watermol
ecul
eshaveaslightnatur
altendencyt
odi
ssoci
atei
ntoi
[Link]
spr
ocessi
s
cal
l
edself
-i
oni
zat
ion(orautoi
onizat
ion):

H2O ⇌ H++OH-

Equil
i
brium at25°
C
Atroom temperat
ure(
25°
C),
theconcent
rat
ionofhy
drogeni
ons(
H+)andhy
droxi
de
i
ons( OH−)inpurewat
eri
sexact
lyequal
:

 [
H+]
=[OH−]
=10−7mol
/L

 Biol
ogi
calSignif
icance:Thisbal
anceiscruci
alformaint
aini
ngt heprecisepHof
thecyt
[Link] ther
more,waterbehav
esasanamphot eri
c
compound—meani ngitcanactasbothaweakaci d(donati
ngpr ot
ons)anda
weakbase( acceptingprot
ons),al
l
owingittoserveasanaturalbuff
eringsyst
em
thatpr
eventsextremeshi f
tsincel
lul
arpHthatwouldotherwisedenature
enzymes.

[Link]
tyandAnomal
ousBehav
iorofWat
er

 Mostliqui
dscontractconti
nuouslyandbecomedenserast heycooldownand
soli
dif
[Link]
,howev er,
exhibi
tsauniqueexcepti
onbetween4°Cand
0°C:i
texpandsandbecomesl essdenseasitapproachesfr
eezi
[Link]
Densit
y:Waterreachesit
sabsol ut
emaximum densityat4C.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 Freezing(I
ceFor mati
on):
Ast hetemperaturedropsbelow4° Ctoward0°C,wat
er
mol ecul
esslowdown, andtheirhydr
ogenbondsl ockthem intoarigi
d,open
crystal
li
nelatt
[Link]
spushest hemoleculesfurt
herapar
t,causingwaterto
expandasi tfr
eezes.

 Biol
ogicalSi
gnificance:Becauseoft hisex pansion,
iceislessdensethanl
i
quid
waterandf l
oatsont hesur f
aceofl akes,ponds, [Link] l
oati
ngl
ayerof
i
ceact sasat hickinsulatingblanket,preventingthedeepwat erbeneat
hfr
om
fr
eezingcompl [Link] ousdensi t
ypropertypreser
vestheaquat
ic
ecosystem,all
owi ngf i
shandot herorganismst osur vi
veharshwinter
sinl
iqui
d
waterunderthef rozencr ust.

1.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oCar
bohy
drat
es

Carbohydratesar
ewi del
ydist
ribut
edorgani
ccompoundsoccur
ri
nginbot
hpl ant
sand
ani
mal [Link]
uct
uralcomponent
sandimmediat
esourcesof
energy.

 Li
ter
alMeani
ng:
Thewor
dcar
bohy
drat
etr
ansl
atest
o"hy
drat
edcar
bons"
.

 ChemicalDefi
nit
ion:Textbooksdef
inecar
bohydr
atesaspoly
hydroxyaldehydes
orpol
yhydroxyketones,orcomplexsubst
anceswhichuponhydr
olysi
sy i
eld
pol
yhydroxyal
dehy deorketonesubuni
ts.

 Elemental
Composi t
ion&GeneralFor
mula:Theyar
ecomposedofCar
bon,
Hy dr
ogen,[Link]
ati
oofhy dr
ogentooxygeni
sthesameasinwat
er
(2:1)
.Thei
rgener
al f
ormulai
swr i
tt
enas:

Cn​
(
H2​
O)n

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionScheme

Basedont heirbehavi
ort
owardhydr
olysi
sandthenumberofsi
mpl
esugaruni
tst
hey
contai
n,carbohydrat
esarecl
assi
fi
edintothr
eemajorgr
oups:

[Link]
ides:
Simpl
esugar
sthatcannotbef
urt
herhy
drol
yzed.

[Link]
i
gosacchar
ides:
Sugar
sthaty
iel
d2t
o10monosacchar
ideuni
tsonhy
drol
ysi
s.

[Link]
ysacchar
ides:
Complex,
high-
molecul
ar-
wei
ghtsugar
sthaty
iel
dmor
ethan10
monosacchari
deuni
tsonhydrol
ysi
s.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

[Link]
ides(
Simpl
eSugar
s)

Monosacchar
idesarethesimplestf
orm ofcar
bohydrat
[Link]
ewhit
ecryst
all
i
ne
sol
ids,
sweeti
nt ast
e,andhighlysol
ubl
[Link]
urt
herbr
okendown
i
ntosimpl
ersugarsbyhydroly
sis.

 Chemical
Struct
ure:Theycontai
n3t [Link]
car bonat
omsi na
monosacchari
deexceptonepossessahy dr
oxylgroup(
OH) .Theremai
ning
car
bonatom ispartofacarbonylgr
oup(CO).

o I
fthecar
bonylgr
oupisatt
heterminal
end,
itf
ormsanal
dehy
degr
oup
(
CHO),andthesugari
sanAldose.

o Ift
hecarbonyl
groupi
satanyi
nter
nal
posi
ti
on,
itf
ormsaket
onegr
oup,
andthesugari
saKetose.

Glucoseisthemostabundantandbi
ologi
cal
l
ysigni
ficantmonosacchari
def oundi
n
nature.I
tisanal
do-
hexose(a6-car
bonsugarcont
aininganaldehy
def unct
ionalgr
oup)
.

 Nat
uralOccurr
ence:Foundinbothfr
eeandcombi
nedst at
es.I
nthef
reest
ate,
it
i
sabundantinall
frui
ts,par
ti
cul
arl
yinri
pegr
apes,
figs,
anddates.

 HumanBl
oodConcentr
ati
on:Glucosei
saconst antconst
it
uentofhumanbl
ood,
humanbl
oodnor
mallycont
ains0.08%glucoseundernormalcondi
ti
ons.

 Photosyntheti
cEner
gyStorage:Gl
ucoseissynt
hesizedbygreenplant
sduri
ng
photosynthesi
[Link]
hesize1gram ofgl
ucose,plant
str
apandst or
e673kcal
ofsolarenergyaschemicalpot
ent
ialener
gywithi
nt hecov
alentbondsoft
he
sugar.

 StructuralForms:Incry
stal
li
neform,gl
ucoseexist
sinastr
aight
-chainstr
uct
ure.
Howev er,whendissol
vedinanaqueoussolut
ion,t
hechai
nbendsandf or
msa
stabler i
ngstruct
[Link]
ucoseformsa6-member edri
ngcal
ledaGl ucopyr
anose
ri
ng.

[Link]
i
gosacchar
ides

Oli
gosacchar
idesarecar
bohydrat
esthaty
ieldanywheref
rom 2to10monosacchar
ide
uni
tsuponchemi cal
hydr
oly
[Link]
elati
vel
ylesssweetandl
esssol
ubl
einwat er
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

compar
edt
omonosacchar
ides.

 TheGl ycosidi
cBond: Themonosacchar idesubunitswit
hinanoligosacchari
de
areli
nkedt ogetherbyaspecif
iccovalentbondcal ledaglycosi
dicli
[Link]
bondi sformedbet weenthehydroxyl
gr oupsoft woadjacentmonosacchar i
des
withtheeliminati
onofawat ermolecule( condensati
onreacti
on).

Di
sacchar
ides

Disacchar
idesar
ethemostcommonandst r
uctur
all
yvit
alsubclassofol
igosacchar
ides,
composedofexactl
ytwomonosacchar
ideunit
[Link]
mol ecul
ar
formulaC12​
H22​
O11

[Link]
ose/CaneSugar

 Formedbythecondensat i
onreacti
onbet
weenoneα-D-gl
ucosemol
ecul
eand
oneβ-D-
fr
uctosemol ecul
e.
Li
nkageType:Itf
eaturesanα-(1→ 2)gl
ycosi
dicl
i
nkage,i
nvol
vi
ngCar
bon-1
ofgl
ucoseandCar bon-2offr
uctose.

 Biol
ogicalI
mportance:I
tist
hestandar
dsugarf
oundinsugarcaneandsugar
beets.I
nplants,
sucroseser
vesasthepri
marytr
anspor
tcarbohydr
ateused
totr
anslocatephotosy
nthat
esthr
oughthephl
oem fr
om l
eavestoother
ti
ssues.

[Link]
ose(
Mil
kSugar
)

 Composi
ti
on:
For medbyt
hest
ruct
ural
li
nkageofonegl
ucosemol
ecul
eandone
gal
act
osemolecule.

 Li
nkageTy
peI
tfeat
uresaβ-
(1→ 4)gl
ycosi
dicl
i
nkage.

 Biol
ogi
cal
Impor
tance:Lact
oseoccursnatur
all
yonl
yinthemil
kofmammal s,
acti
ngasapr
imary,easi
l
ydigest
ibl
esourceofener
gyfornewbor
nof
fspr
ing.

[Link]
ysacchar
ides

Polysacchari
desar ethemostcompl
excar
bohydrat
esfoundinnatur
[Link]
macr omolecularpoly
mersmadeupofhundredsorthousandsofmonosacchar
ideuni
ts
j
oinedbygl ycosidi
cbonds.

 Gener
alChar
act
eri
sti
cs:
Theyar
eamor
phous,
compl
etel
ytast
eless,
andar
e
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

ei
theri
nsolubleorspari
ngl
ysol
ublei
nwat
[Link]
imar
il
yasst
ruct
ural
materi
alsorfoodstorager
eser
ves.

[Link]
arches

 Occurr
ence:
Star
chisthepr
inci
palst
oragecarbohy
drateofplants.I
tisfoundin
abundancei
ncereal
grai
ns(wheat
,ri
ce,maize),
potat
otubers,andvariousseeds.

 Composi
ti
on:Apol
ymercomposedentir
elyofal
phagl
ucoseunit
[Link]
compl
etechemi
cal
hydr
olysi
s,i
tyi
eldsonlygl
ucosemol
ecules.

 St
ruct
ural
Var
iet
ies:
Star
chexi
stsi
ntwodi
sti
nctst
ruct
ural
for
ms:

[Link] l
ose:Consi
stsofunbranched,
strai
ghtchai
nsofglucosemolecul
es
l
inkedviaα-
(1→ 4)glycosi
[Link] l
osei
ssolubleinhotwater
.

[Link] lopect
in:Consi
stsofhighl
ybranchedchainsofglucosemolecul
[Link]
containsα-(
1→ 4)bondsi nthestrai
ghtr
egionsandα- (1→ 6)bondsat
everybranchingpoi
[Link]
iniscompletel
yinsolubl
einbothhotand
coldwat er
."

 Iodi
neTest:Whent
reatedwi
thani
odi
nesol
uti
on,
star
chpr
oducesa
charact
eri
sti
cbl
uecolor.

[Link]
l
ulose

 Occurr
ence:Cel
lul
oseisthemostabundantor
ganicmoleculeonEart
h.I
tserv
es
asthepri
marystructur
almater
ialf
ormi
ngthecellwal
lofall
plant
[Link]
onisthe
pur
estnatur
alform ofcel
l
ulose(99%pur
ecell
ulose)
.

 Composi
ti
on:I
tisanunbranched,
strai
ght-
chai
npol
ymermadeupofβ-
glucose
uni
tsl
i
nkedti
ghtl
ybyβ-(1→ 4)glycosi
dicbonds

 TheDi gesti
onPar adox: Humansandmanyot hercarniv
orousani malscannot
digestcell
ulosebecauset hei
rdigesti
v etr
actsdonotsecr etetheenzyme
cell
ulase,whichisr equi
redtohydroly
zebet a-
li
[Link] bi
vorousanimals(l
ike
cows, sheep,andt ermit
es)candigestcellul
osebecauset heirdi
gesti
vetract
s
hostsy mbioti
cmi croorgani
sms( bacteri
aandcili
ates)thatproduceandsecret e
thecellul
aseenzy me.

 TextbookIodi
neTest
:Cel
l
uloseshowsnocolorchange(
remai
nscl
earor
brownish)whent
reat
edwit
haniodinesol
uti
on.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

[Link]
ycogen(
Ani
mal
Star
ch)

 Occurr
ence:Gl
ycogeni
stheprinci
palst
oragecarbohydr
ateofanimalsandf
ungi
.
I
nv er
tebr
ates,
iti
sheavi
lyst
oredinsi
dethecell
soft hel
iverandskel
etal
muscl
es.

 Compositi
on:I
tisahighl
ybranchedpolymercomposedof$\al
pha$-gl
ucose
uni
ts.I
tsover
allstr
uct
ureischemical
lysi
mi l
artoamyl
opect
inbutf
eaturesmuch
moreextensi
ve,compact,
andfrequentbranchi
ngpoi
nts.

 Biol
ogical I
mportance:I
tact
sasar eadyenergyreser
v [Link]
hebodyrequi
res
energy
, storedl
ivergl
ycogenisconver
tedbackintoglucosetomai
ntai
n
homeost ati
cbloodsugarlevel
s.

 I
odineTest
:Whentr
eatedwi
thaniodi
nesol
uti
on,
gly
cogenpr
oducesadi
sti
nct
deepredorr
eddi
sh-
browncol
or.

1.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oPr
otei
ns

Prot
einsarethemostabundantorganiccompoundsf oundwithi
nlivi
ngcells,
consti
tuti
ngover50%ofthei
rtot
al dryweight
.Theyarepresenti
nal lcel
l
ular
compar t
mentsandser
veasbot hst r
uctur
albuil
dingbl
ocksandf unct
ional,
dynami
c
molecules.

 Nomencl
atur
e:Thet
erm pr
otei
nisderi
vedf r
om t
heGr dpr
eekwor otei
os,
meani
ng"ofpri
meimport
ance"or"
fi
rstrank".

 ChemicalDef
ini
ti
on:Prot
einsar
ehigh-
molecul
ar-
wei
ghtorgani
cpolymers
composedofnitr
ogenoussubunit
scal
ledaminoaci
dsl
inkedsequenti
all
yby
coval
entpept
idebonds.

 Element
alCompositi
on:TheyconsistofCarbon,Hy
drogen,Oxy
gen,andNit
rogen.
Manyprotei
nscontai
nSulfur(
S),whilespeci
ali
zedvar
iant
spossesselements
l
ikeIr
on(Fe),
Phosphorus(P),
orIodine(I)
.

[Link]
noAci
ds(
TheMonomer
icUni
ts)

Ami
noaci
dsser
veast
hef
undament
alst
ruct
ural
uni
tsofal
lpr
otei
ns.

Occur
renceandVar
iet
y
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 Text
booksexpl
ici
tl
ynotethatappr
oxi
mately170t
ypesofami
noaci
dshav
ebeen
di
scover
edacrossvar
iouscell
sandti
ssues.

 Ofthese,onl
y20to25t ypesareregul
arconst
it
uentsofpr
otei
[Link]
andar
d
pr
oteinsarebui
l
tfrom combinati
onsofjust20standar
daminoaci
ds.

Gener
alSt
ruct
ural
Lay
out

Ever
yami noaci
dfeat
uresacentralcar
bonatom, desi
gnat
edast
heal
pha-
car
bon,
whi
ch
i
scov al
entl
ybondedt
of ourdi
sti
nctchemicalgr
oups:

[Link]
nogr
oup(
NH2)—basi
cinpr
oper
ty.

[Link]
boxy
lgr
oup(
COOH)—aci
dici
npr
oper
ty.

[Link]
drogenat
om (
H).

[Link]
yvari
ableAlky
lorSide-chai
ngroup(
R)thatdi
ctat
estheuniquechemi
cal
i
denti
ty,
str
uctural
proper
ty,andchargeoft
hatspeci
fi
caminoacid.

 Gl
yci
ne:
Thesi
mpl
estami
noaci
d,wher
etheRgr
oupi
sasi
ngl
eHy
drogenat
om
(
H).

 Al
anine:Thesecondsi
mpl
estami
noaci
d,wher
etheRgr
oupi
srepl
acedbya
MethylgroupCH3.

[Link]
ideBond(
Condensat
ionReact
ion)

Aminoacidspol
ymer
izei
ntolongchai
nsvi
aaspeci
fi
ccov
alentl
i
nkageknownasa
pept
idebondoracar
boxamideli
nkage.

1. TheReact
ionMechani
sm:
Apept
idebondi
ssy
nthesi
zedv
iaacondensat
ion
r
eact
ion(
dehy
drat
ionsy
nthesi
s)bet
weent
woadj
acentami
noaci
ds:

o Ahydr
oxy
lgr
oup(OH)i
sremov
edf
rom t
hecar
boxy
lgr
oupoft
hef
ir
stami
no
aci
d.

o Ahydrogenatom (H)isr
emovedfrom t
heaminogroupofthesecondamino
aci
d.
Theresul
tingl
ossofawatermolecul
e(H₂O)cr
eatesadi
rectcoval
entbond
bet
weent hecarbony
lcar
bonandtheaminonit
rogen(CONH)

2. Di
pept
ide:
Amol
ecul
econt
aini
ngexact
lyt
woami
noaci
duni
tsj
oinedbyasi
ngl
e
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

pepti
debond.I
tret
ainsafreeaminogroupatoneend(N-terminus)andaf
ree
carboxy
lgr
oupattheother(C-
ter
minus),al
l
owingfur
therelongati
on.

3. Tr
ipept
ide:
Composedoft
hreeami
noaci
dsl
i
nkedbyt
wopept
idebonds.

4. Pol
ypept
ide:
Acont
inuous,
unbr
anchedpol
ymerchai
nconsi
sti
ngofmanyami
no
aci
dsl
i
nkedbysequent
ial
pept
idebonds.

[Link]
elsofPr
otei
nSt
ruct
ural
Organi
zat
ion

Thephysicalconfor
mat i
onandt hree-di
mensionalarr
angementofaproteindi
rect
ly
di
ctat
eitsbiologi
calfuncti
onal
it
y .Textbookscategor
izepr
otei
narchi
tecturei
ntofour
progr
essi
v eoperati
onallev
els:

I
.Pr
imar
ySt
ruct
ure

 Defi
nit
ion:
Thel
i
near
,speci
fi
csequenceofami
noaci
dswi
thi
napol
ypept
ide
chai
n.

 KeyFeatur
e:Maint
ainedexcl
usivel
ybycoval
entpept
idebonds.I
test
abli
shest
he
fundament
alchemicali
denti
tyandult
imat
elengthofthepr
otei
nmolecul
e.

 Cl
assi
cText
bookPar
amet
ers:

o Insuli
n:Fi
rstsequencedbyFr eder
ickSanger
.Itconsi
stsofexactl
y51
ami noacidsdist
ri
butedacrosstwopolypept
idechains:anA-chai
n(21
ami noacids)andaB- chai
n(30ami noaci
ds),i
nter
connectedbydisul
fi
de
bridges.

o Hemoglobi
n:Therespir
atorypigmentofredbloodcel
ls.I
tconsi
stsof574
aminoaci
dsorganizedint
of ourdi
sti
nctpoly
pepti
dechains:t
woalpha-
chai
ns(141aminoacidseach)andt wobeta-chai
ns(146aminoacids
each)
.

High-Yi
eldExam Focus(MDCATTr ap):Thepr i
maryami noacidsequenceisstri
ctl
y
governedbythegeneti
ccodewi thi
[Link] ari
ationinevenasingleaminoacidcan
causet ot
alst
ruct
uralf
ail
[Link] eisSickleCell
Anemi a,whereasingl
e
i
ncor r
ectaminoacid(val
i
ner epl
acingglutamicaci
d)atthe6t hpositi
onofbothbeta-
chainscauseshemoglobintoaggregate,dist
ort
ingredbloodcell
si nt
ocrescentshapes.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

I
[Link]
ySt
ruct
ure

 Defi
nit
ion:
Thel
ocal
i
zedspat
ial
coi
l
ingorr
egul
arf
oldi
ngoft
hel
i
nearpol
ypept
ide
backbone.

 KeyFeature:
Mai nt
ainedpri
maril
ybyhydr
ogenbondsfor
medatregul
ari
nter
val
s
betweentheoxygenoft hecar
bonylgr
oups(CO)andt
hehydr
ogenoftheamino
groups(NH)alongthebackbone.

 Domi
nantConf
ormat
ions:

o alpha-Heli
x:Ast
abl
e,r
igi
d,r
ight
-handedspi
ralcoi
l
.Textbooksemphasi
ze
thattherearepr
eci
sel
y3.6aminoacidspercomplet
eturnofthehel
i
x.

o beta-
PleatedSheet:For
medbyt hepol
ypept
idechai
nfol
dingbackand
for
thhorizontal
lyuponit
sel
f,cr
eati
ngafl
at,
sheet-
li
kezi
g-zag
confi
guration.

I
II
.Ter
ti
arySt
ruct
ure

 Def
ini
ti
on:Theoverar
chi
ng,t
hree-
dimensi
onalbendingandtwi
sti
ngofasi
ngl
e
pol
ypept
idechai
nintoacompact,compl
ex,gl
obularconfor
mati
on.

 KeyFeat
ure:
Mai nt
ainedbyf
ourmaj
orty
pesofphysi
calandchemical
i
nter
acti
onsoccurr
ingspeci
fi
cal
l
ybet
weenthevar
iabl
eRside-
chai
ns:

[Link]
ophobi
cInt
eract
ions:
Non-pol
arsi
de-
chai
nscl
ust
ert
ight
lyi
nwar
d,
awayfr
om t
heaqueouscytopl
asm.

[Link]
drogenBonds:
For
medbet
weenpol
ar,
unchar
gedsi
de-
chai
ns.

3.I
onicBonds:El
ect
rost
ati
cat
tract
ionsbet
weenf
ull
ychar
gedaci
dicand
basi
cside-
chai
ns.

[Link]
sul
fi
deBri
dges:Str
ongcoval
entl
i
nkagesformedbetweent
hesul
fur
at
omsoftwoneighbori
ngcy
stei
neaminoacidresi
dues.

I
[Link]
ernar
ySt
ruct
ure

 Defi
nit
ion:Thehi
ghl
yorganizedaggregat
ionoft
woormor ei
ndependentt
ert
iar
y-
st
agepol y
pepti
dechai
ns(refer
redtoassubunit
s)wor
kingasasingl
efuncti
onal
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

macr
omol
ecul
arcompl
ex.

 KeyFeature:
Stabi
l
izedbyhydr
ophobici
nteract
ions,
hydr
ogenbonds,andi
onic
at
tract
ionsacti
ngbetweent
hecontactsurf
acesofthenei
ghbor
ingsubuni
ts.

 Example:Hemoglobi
nexhi bi
tsaful
lquater
naryst
ruct
urecomposedofitsfour
di
sti
nctglobul
arpolypept
idesubuni
tsclust
eredar
oundacentral
iron-
contai
ning
hemepr ost
het
icgroup.

[Link]
alCl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPr
otei
ns

Basedonthei
rst
ruct
uralconf
igur
ati
on,ov
eral
lsy
mmet r
y,sol
ubi
l
ity
,andf
unct
ional
rol
es,
provi
nci
alt
ext
booksdivi
deprotei
nsi
ntotwomajorgr
oups:

St
ruct
ural
Fi
brousPr
otei
ns Gl
obul
arPr
otei
ns
Pr
opert
y

Composedoflong,paral
l
el, Foldedandtwist
edintot
ight
,
Physi
cal
thr
ead-
li
keorelongat
ed compact,spheri
cal
,orel
l
ipsoi
dal
Geometr
y
pol
ypept
idest
rands. shapes.

Compl et
elyi
nsol
ubl
ein
Highlysol
ubl
einaqueousmedi
a
Solubi
li
ty aqueousmedi a(
water
,sal
t
(water,
sal
tsolut
ions,
aci
ds,
or
Status sol
utions,di
l
uteaci
ds,
or
bases).
bases).

Cry
stal
li
ne Non-cry
stall
i
neand Canbereadi
lycryst
all
i
zed;
Natur
e st
ructural
l
yst abl
e. st
ruct
ural
lyl
abil
e.

Highl
yresi
stantt
omi nor Highl
ysensit
iveandeasil
y
Envir
onment
al
vari
ati
onsinambientpHor denat
uredbymi norchangesi
n
Stabi
li
ty
t
emper at
ure. temperat
ureorpH.

Playdynamic,catal
yti
c,
Pr
imary Pl
aystati
c,mechani
cal
,and
tr
ansport,
andf unct
ionalr
oles
Bi
ologi
cal
Rol
e st
ruct
uralrol
esi
nthebody.
i
nsidetheorganism.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

St
ruct
ural
Fi
brousPr
otei
ns Gl
obul
arPr
otei
ns
Pr
opert
y

Kerati
n(hair
,nai
ls,wool), Enzymes(al
lbi
ocat
alysts)
,
Text
book My osi
n(musclefil
ament s)
, Anti
bodi
es(i
mmunogl obuli
ns)
,
Exampl
es Fi
br oi
n(si
lk)
,Coll
agen Hemoglobi
n,Hormones( l
i
ke
(t
endons,connecti
vetissue). i
nsuli
n).

[Link]
pids(
Sect
ion3.
6)

Li
pidsareahighl
yheter
ogeneousgroupofor gani
ccompoundsr el
atedtofat
tyaci
ds.
Theyarecomplet
elyi
nsolubl
einwater(hydrophobi
c)butr
eadil
ysolublei
nnon-pol
ar
organi
csolv
entssuchasether,
alcohol
,chlorof
orm,andbenzene.

[Link]
lgl
ycer
ols(
Fat
sandOi
l
s)

Acyl
gly
cerolsar
ethemostabundantcategoryofl
ipi
dsf
oundinnatur
[Link]
l
y ,t
hey
ar
eestersformedbyacondensat
ionreacti
onbetweenanal
coholandorgani
cacids.

 TheComponent
s:

o Al
cohol
(Gl
ycer
ol)
:A3-
car
bonmol
ecul
econt
aini
ngt
hreehy
droxy
l(-
OH)
gr
oups.

o Fatt
yAci
ds: Or
ganicchai
nsf eat
uri
ngalonghydrocar
bonbackbonewit
ha
ter
minalcar
boxylgroup(
-COOH) .Theyvar
yinchainl
engt
h,cont
aini
ng
anywher
ef r
om 2to30Car bonatoms( t
ypi
cal
lyanevennumberinli
vi
ng
syst
ems).

 Tri
gly
ceri
des(Neut
ral
Fat s)
:Astandardtr
igl
ycer
ideisf
ormedwhenonesi ngl
e
gly
cerol
molecul
echemi cal
lybondswitht
hreefatt
yaci
[Link]
thr
eeesterl
i
nkageswiththeconcurr
enteli
minati
onofthr
eewatermol ecules
(H₂O)
.

Gl
ycer
ol+3Fat
tyAci
ds──>Tr
igl
ycer
ide+3H2O(
viaEst
erLi
nkages)

Sat
urat
edv
[Link]
urat
edFat
tyAci
ds

Provi
nci
altext
bookshi
ghl
i
ghtacl
earchemi
cal
andphy
sical
div
idebet
weent
heset
wo
formsoffatt
yaci
ds:
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

Char
act
eri
sti
c Sat
urat
edFat
tyAci
ds Unsat
urat
edFat
tyAci
ds

Contai
nonl
ysi
ngl
ecoval
ent Contai
noneormoredoubl
e
Carbon-
Car
bon
bondsbet
weenCar
bonatoms coval
entbondsbet
weenCarbon
Bonds
(-
C-C-)
. atoms(-C=C-
).

Full
ysat
urat
edwi
thHy
drogen Cont
ainf
ewerHy
drogenat
oms
Hy
drogenCont
ent
atoms. duet
odoubl
ebonds.

Physi
calSt
ateat Sol
idatroom t
emperat
ure. Li
quidatroom temper
atur
e.
Room Temp Gener
all
yrefer
redt
oasFats. General
l
yr ef
err
edtoasOils.

Predominantl
yfoundin
Predomi nantl
yfoundinpl
ants
Bi
ologi
cal
Sour
ce animal
s( e.
g.,
butter
,beef
(e.
g.,sunfloweroi
l,ol
i
veoil
).
tal
low)
.

Pal
miti
cAci
d( C₁
₆H₃
₂O₂),
Text
book Ol
eicAci
d(C₁₈
H₃₄O₂
),whichhas
whi
chhasahighmelti
ng
Exampl
es al
owmel t
ingpoi
ntof4°C.
poi
ntof63.
1°C.

[Link]
i
pids

Phospholi
pidsar
estruct
ural
lyder
ivedf
rom phosphat
idi
caci
d,whichi
scomposedof
oneglycer
ol mol
ecul
eesteri
fi
edtotwofat
tyacidsandonephosphori
caci
dgroup.

 Chemi
cal
Str
uct
ure:
Aty
pical
cel
l
ularphosphol
i
pidconsi
stsof
:

[Link]
ycer
olmol
ecul
e.

[Link]
tyAci
dchai
ns(
non-
pol
arhy
drocar
bont
ail
s).

[Link]
eGr
oupl
i
nkedt
oani
tr
ogenouscompound,
mostcommonl
y
Chol
i
ne.

 Amphi
pat
hicNat
ure:
Phosphol
i
pidsdi
spl
ayaspl
i
tper
sonal
i
ty:

o Thephosphat
e-chol
i
neendf
ormsahi
ghl
ypol
ar,
hydr
ophi
l
ic"
head"t
hat
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

at
tract
swat
er.

o Thelongf
att
yaci
dchai
nsf
orm non-
pol
ar,
hydr
ophobi
c"t
ail
s"t
hatr
epel
water.

 Biol
ogicalI
mpor tance:Duetot hi
sdual af
fi
nit
y,whenplacedinanaqueous
envir
onment ,phosphol
ipidsspontaneouslyassembleint
oast abl
elipi
dbil
ayer
.
Thisbil
ayerformst hestr
ucturalbasel
ineofallbi
ologi
calmembr anes(pl
asma
membr ane,organell
eboundaries),r
egulati
ngcell
ulart
raf
fic.

[Link]
bonucl
eicAci
d-RNA(
Sect
ion3.
7)

Ribonucl
eicAci
d(RNA)isav i
tal
poly
mercomposedofr i
bo-
nucleoti
demonomer s.
Unli
keDNA, RNAgenerall
yexi
stsasasi
ngl
epolynucl
eoti
destrand,thoughi
tcanloop
andfoldbackuponit
selftocr
eatel
ocal
i
zeddouble-
str
andedregions.

St
ruct
ural
Framewor
k

Eachi
ndi
vi
dual
RNAnucl
eot
idei
scomposedoft
hreebui
l
dingbl
ocks:

[Link]
:Speci
fi
call
yRibose,whi
chpossessesareact
ivehy
droxy
l(-
OH)
groupattheCar
bon-2posi
tion(unl
i
kedeoxyr
ibose,whi
chhasasingl
e-H).

[Link]
eGr
oup:
Phosphor
icaci
d(H₃
PO₄
)li
nkedt
othesugar
'sCar
bon-
5.

[Link]
trogenousBases:Di
videdi
ntoPuri
nes[Adeni
ne(A)andGuani
ne(G)
]and
Pyr
imidines[
Cytosi
ne(C)andUraci
l(U)
].Ur
acil
repl
acesthet
hyminef
oundin
DNA.

Ty
pesandFunct
ionsofRNA

RNAmol eculesar
etranscri
bedfr
om aDNAt emplat
ewit
hinthenucl
eusandmigrat
eto
thecytoplasm todi
rectprot
einsy
nthesi
[Link]
vingcel
l
scontai
nthreedi
sti
nctt
ypesof
funct
ional RNA:

[Link](
mRNA)

 Abundance:
Const
it
utesappr
oxi
mat
ely3%t
o4%oft
het
otal
RNAi
nacel
l
.

 Str
uctur
e:Asi
ngl
e,l
inearst
randofvar
iabl
elengt
h.I
tsl
engt
hdi
rect
lycor
responds
tothesi
zeoft
hespecifi
cpoly
pepti
dechai
nittar
get
s.

 Funct
ion:
Itact
sasagenet
iccour
ier
,tr
ansl
ati
ngt
hebl
uepr
intofagenef
rom t
he
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

nucl
earDNAanddel i
ver
ingt
hoseinst
ruct
ionst
other
ibosomesi
nthef
orm of
tr
ipl
etsequencescal
l
edcodons.

[Link]
ansf
erRNA(
tRNA)

 Abundance:
Const
it
utesappr
oxi
mat
ely10%t
o20%oft
het
otal
cel
l
ularRNA.

 Str
uctur
e:Thesmallestoft
het hreevar
iant
s,ty
pical
lyspanni
ng75to90
nucl
eoti
[Link]
nalhydrogenbonding,i
tfol
dsintoachar
act
eri
sti
c
cl
overl
eafsecondar
yst r
uct
ure.

 Funct
ion:
Itfunct
ionsasanadaptermoleculeduri
ngtransl
ati
[Link]
upaspecifi
cami noaci
dfrom t
hecytoplasmicpoolv
iaitsaminoacidatt
achment
si
teandmat chesit
suniqueant
icodonlooptothecompl ementar
ycodononthe
mRNAst r
andatt heri
bosome.

[Link]
bosomal
RNA(
rRNA)

 Abundance:Themostabundantf
orm,
const
it
uti
ngupt
o80%oft
het
otal
RNA
wit
hinacell
.

 Str
ucture:
Amassi
ve,
highl
ycoi
l
edpol
ynucl
eot
idechai
nsy
nthesi
zedi
nsi
det
he
nucl
eolus.

 Funct
ion:
Itcombinesstr
uct
ural
lywi
thribosomalprot
einstoassemblefunct
ional
ri
[Link]
sasthephysi
calworkbenchandcatal
y t
icengi
nethatali
gns
mRNAandt RNAt odri
vepepti
debondformation.

[Link]
ugat
edMol
ecul
es(
Sect
ion3.
8)

Inl
ivingsyst
ems, bi
omolecul
esdonotal
way soper
ateinisol
ati
[Link]
booksdef
ine
conjugat
edmol ecul
esascomplexstr
uct
uraluni
tsformedbythechemicalcombi
nati
on
oftwocompl et
elydif
fer
entcl
assesofbi
ologi
calmolecul
es.

Themaj
orcl
assesdet
ail
edi
nPaki
stani
cur
ri
cul
aincl
ude:

[Link]
ycopr
otei
ns(
Mucoi
ds)

 Composit
ion:For
medbyt
hest
ruct
ural
uni
onofaCar
bohy
drat
e(ol
i
gosacchar
ide)
andaProtei
n.

 Bi
ologi
cal
Impor
tance:
Mostcel
l
ularsecr
eti
onsar
egl
ycopr
otei
[Link]
veas
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

majorstruct
uralcomponentsofcellwallsinplant
sandext r
acell
ularmatr
icesi
n
[Link] anesurface,theyprojectoutwardtoactascruci
al
cellsur
facereceptor
s,cel
l
-ident
it
ymar kers,andantigensinvolv
edi ni
mmune
recognit
ion.

[Link]
ycol
i
pids(
Cer
ebr
osi
des)

 Composi
ti
on:
For
medbyt
hest
ruct
ural
uni
onofaCar
bohy
drat
eandaLi
pid.

 Bi
ologi
calI
mpor t
ance:Gl
ycoli
pidsarecomponentsofcell
[Link]
ar
eexcepti
onall
yconcent
ratedinthewhitematteroft
hebrainandtheprotect
ive
myeli
nsheathssurr
oundi
ngner vefi
bers,
play
ingacrit
ical
rolei
nrapidnerve
i
mpulseconducti
on.

MDCATCor eNot e:
Together
,theprotrudi
ngcar
bohydr
atepor
ti
onsofglycoprot
einsand
gl
ycoli
pidsontheouterl
eafoftheplasmamembr anefor
m acol
lect
iveprot
ecti
veand
adhesi
vecoatknownast heGlycocal
yx.

[Link]
herCr
uci
alConj
ugat
es

 Li
popr ot
eins:
FormedbyLipi
ds+Pr otei
[Link]
maryconstit
uent
sofall
bi
ologicalmembranesandserv
easbl ood-sol
ubl
etranspor
tvehicl
estofer
ry
hy
dr ophobicl
ipi
ds(l
ikechol
est
erol
)throughtheaqueousbloodstr
eam.

 Nucl eoproteins:
FormedbyNucl ei
cAci
ds+Proteins(
basichi
stones)
.Thisi
sthe
structuralstateofeukary
oti
cchromosomes(Chromatini
saconjugateofDNA
andhi stonepr ot
eins)andri
bosomes(aconj
ugateofrRNAandr i
bosomal
proteins).

[Link]
ruct
ureofDNA(
Sect
ion3.
9)

I
n1953, JamesWat sonandFranci
sCr ickpr
oposedthelandmar kDoubleHel
i
cal
Model
[Link]
onswerebuiltupontheX-r
aycrystal
logr
aphydataofRosal
i
nd
Frankl
i
nandMaur iceWil
kins,
alongsideErwi
nChargaff’
schemi caldat
aonbaserat
ios.

St
ruct
ural
Par
amet
ersoft
heDoubl
eHel
i
x

Accor
dingtotheWatson-Cr
ickmodel
,aDNAmol
ecul
eexhi
bit
sthef
oll
owi
ngphy
sical
andchemical
archi
tect
ure:

 Dual
Str
ands:
DNAconsi
stsoft
wol
ongpol
ynucl
eot
idechai
nswoundar
ounda
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

commoncent
ral
axi
s,f
ormi
ngar
ight
-handeddoubl
ehel
i
x.

 Anti
paral
lel
Direct
ion:
Thet wostrandsruni
nopposi
tedi
rect
[Link]
randi
s
or
ientedinthe5'→ 3'di
rect
ion,
whi l
eit
scomplement
arypar
tnerrunsi
nthe3'→
5'di
recti
on.

 TheOut erRail
ing:
Theexteri
orstruct
ural
backboneoftheheli
xismadeupof
al
ternati
ngDeoxy r
ibosesugarsandPhosphategroupsli
nkedtoget
herbyst
rong
covalentphosphodiest
erbonds.

 TheInwardRungs:Theni
tr
ogenousbasespr
ojecti
nwardint
othecenteroft
he
hel
ix,per
pendi
cul
artothemainaxi
s,r
esembl
ingtherungsofaladder
.

 Compl
ement
aryBasePair
ing:Apur
inealwayspai
rspreci
sel
ywi t
hapyri
midi
ne.
Thi
spai
ri
ngi
shighl
yspeci
ficandheldt
ogetherbyweakhydrogenbonds:

o Adeni
ne(
A)pai
rsexcl
usi
vel
ywi
thThy
mine(
T)v
iat
wohy
drogenbonds
(A=T)
.

o Guani
ne(
G)pai
rsexcl
usi
vel
ywi
thCy
tosi
ne(
C)v
iat
hreehy
drogenbonds
(
G≡C).

ExactHel
i
xDi
mensi
ons(
High-
Yiel
dCor
eMet
ri
cs)

 Diamet
er:
Thet
otal
widt
h/di
amet
eroft
hedoubl
ehel
i
xisf
ixedatexact
ly2nm
(20Å).

 BasePai
rInt
erv
al:
Thedist
ancebet
weenanytwoadj
acent
,consecut
ivebase
pai
rsal
ongthever
ti
cal
axisis0.
34nm (
3.4Å)
.

 Ful
lTur
nPit
ch:Onecomplete360°t
urn(
pit
ch)oft
hehel
i
xspansal
engt
hof3.
4
nm (
34Å)andcont
ainsexactl
y10basepai
rs.

[Link]
ini
ti
onofaGene(
Sect
ion3.
10)

TheMol
ecul
arDef
ini
ti
on:

AGenei saspecif
ic,
li
nearsequenceofnucl
eoti
desalongapartofaDNAmol ecul
ethat
contai
nsthepreci
secoderequir
edtodir
ectthesynt
hesisofasingl
e,f
unct
ional
poly
pepti
dechain(orfunct
ional
RNAmol ecul
eli
ketRNAorr RNA).

KeyConcept
ual
Proper
ti
es:
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 TheUnitofHer
edi
ty:
Thegener epresent
sthebasi
cphysical
,st
ruct
ural
,and
funct
ional
uni
tofi
nheri
tancepasseddownacrossgenerati
ons.

 TheLocus:
Eachgeneoccupiesadist
inct
,fi
xedgeogr
aphi
cposi
ti
ononaspeci
fi
c
chr
omosome,knownasitslocus.

 TheCode:Thesequenceofnucleot
idet
ri
plets(codons)wit
hint
hegenedi
ctat
es
theabsol
utepri
marysequenceofaminoacidsthatwill
assembleatt
he
ri
bosome,ult
imatel
ycont
roll
i
ngaspecifi
ccellul
artr
aitorf
uncti
on.

MCQSf
rom v
ari
ousMedi
cal
ent
rancet
est
s

[Link]
rstprot
einwhoseabsol
utepr
imar
ysequenceofami
noaci
dswasdeter
mined
byFreder
ickSangeri
scomposedofhowmanyami noaci
ds?(
UHSPastPaper
)

 A)574ami
noaci
ds

 B)51ami
noaci
ds

 C)141ami
noaci
ds

 D)287ami
noaci
ds

CorrectAnswer:B)51ami noaci
ds>Rational
e:Frederi
ckSangersequencedInsuli
n,
establi
shingt
hatitconsi
stsofexact
ly51aminoacidsdistri
but
edacrosstwochai ns:an
A-chain(21aminoacids)andaB-chain(
30ami noacids).Hemogl
obin,bycontrast,
contains574aminoacids.

[Link]
entsufferi
ngfr
om Sickl
eCellAnemia,amajorst
ruct
uraldi
scr
epancyoccur
s
becauseasinglenormalaminoacidi
sreplacedbyVal
ineatwhichspeci
fi
clocat
ion?
(NUMSHigh-Yield)

 A)6t
hposi
ti
onoft
heal
pha-
chai
n

 B)141stposi
ti
onoft
hebet
a-chai
n

 C)6t
hposi
ti
onoft
hebet
a-chai
n

 D)146t
hposi
ti
onoft
heal
pha-
chai
n
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

CorrectAnswer:C)6t
hposi t
ionofthebet
a-chainRational
e:Si
ckl
eCell
Anemiai
s
causedbyapoi ntmutat
ionwher eglut
amicacidissubsti
tut
edbyVal
ineatt
he6th
positi
onofbothbeta-
polypepti
dechainsi
nhemogl obin,l
eadi
ngtoal
ter
edery
thr
ocyt
e
shapeandf unct
ion.

[Link]-
helixi
sahi ghl
ystabl
esecondar
ystructur
eofprot
einscharact
eri
zedbya
r
ight
-handedspiralt
[Link]
lyhowmanyami noacidsarepr
esentineachcomplet
e
t
urnofthishel
ix?(KMU/ETEA)

 A)3.
0

 B)3.
6

 C)4.
2

 D)10

Corr
ectAnswer :B)3.6>Rat
ionale:St
ructuralparameter
sinpr ovinci
altextbooks
expl
ici
tl
ydeclarethateachf
ull360cir
ct ur
noft herigi
d,r
ight-handedalpha-heli
x
cont
ainsprecisel
y3.6aminoacidresidues,heldstabl
ebyl ocali
zedhydr ogenbonds.

[Link]
ipi
dsform spontaneousbil
ayersinwaterduetothei
ramphi
pathi
cnat
ure.
Thehydrophi
l
ic"head"ofatypicalcel
l
ularphosphol
i
pidlikel
ecit
hini
scomposedof
:

 A)Twof
att
yaci
dchai
ns

 B)Gl
ycer
olboundonl
ytoal
onghy
drocar
bonchai
n

 C)Phosphat
egr
oupat
tachedt
oani
tr
ogenousChol
i
nebase

 D)Pur
eest
erl
i
nksl
acki
ngni
tr
ogen

CorrectAnswer:C)Phosphategroupat t
achedtoanitrogenousChol
i
nebase>
Rational
e:Thehighl
ypolar,
water-at
tract
inghydrophi
l
icheadofaphospholi
pidis
composedofanegat ivel
ychargedphosphat egroupfurt
herbondedtoaposi
tiv
ely
chargednitr
ogenouscompoundcal ledcholi
[Link]- pol
arf
att
yacidsf
ormt hei
nner
tai
ls.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

[Link]
sol
atest
otalcel
lul
arRNAf rom al
i
v erbi
opsysampl
[Link]
chtypeof
RNAwi l
lexhi
bitt
hehi
ghestabundance,account
ingfornear
ly80%oft
hetot
aly
ield?
(Feder
alBoar
d/MDCAT)

 A)MessengerRNA(
mRNA)

 B)Tr
ansf
erRNA(
tRNA)

 C)Ri
bosomal
RNA(
rRNA)

 D)Smal
lnucl
earRNA(
snRNA)

CorrectAnswer
:C)RibosomalRNA(rRNA)>Rationale:r
RNAisstructur
alandhi
ghl
y
stable,maki
ngupthevastmaj
orit
y(80%)oftot
al cel
l
[Link]
roughly10%to20%,whereasmRNAi sthel
eastabundantatroughly3%to4%.

[Link]
leafst
ruct
uralar
rangementobser
vedi
nTr
ansf
erRNA(
tRNA)i
spr
imar
il
y
st
abil
izedbywhichtypeofchemicalbond?

 A)Cov
alentphosphodi
est
erl
i
nkages

 B)St
rongdi
sul
fi
debr
idges

 C)I
nter
mit
tenthy
drogenbondi
ngbet
weencompl
ement
arybases

 D)I
oni
cat
tract
ionsbet
weent
hev
ari
abl
eloops

Corr
ectAnswer :C)Int
ermitt
enthydrogenbondingbetweencomplementar
ybases>
Rati
onale:Whil
ethebackboner uns5'\ri
ghtar
row3' v
iaphosphodi
est
erli
nks,t
he
char
acteri
sti
c2Dcl overl
eafsecondaryshapeoccursbecausethesi
ngl
estrandfol
ds
backoni t
sel
f,pair
ingcomplementarybasesv i
alocal
izedhydr
ogenbonds.

[Link]
desar
ehighl
yspeci
ali
zedconj
ugatedmolecul
est
hatplaymajorst
ruct
ural
rol
esinthewhitematt
erofthebr
ainandmyeli
nsheat
[Link]
l
y,theyare
cat
egorizedas:(
UHSPastPaper)

 A)Gl
ycopr
otei
ns
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 B)Gl
ycol
i
pids

 C)Li
popr
otei
ns

 D)Nucl
eopr
otei
ns

Corr
ectAnswer:B)Gly
coli
pids>Rat
ional
e:Cer
ebrosi
desareclassicexampl
esof
gl
ycoli
pids(
Carbohydr
ate+Lipi
dstr
uctur
alconj
ugates)andarehighl
yconcent
rat
ed
componentsofwhit
emat t
erinner
vousti
ssuesandmy eli
nsheathboundari
es.

[Link]
ari
denti
tymarker
sandcell
surf
acerecept
orst
hatpr
ojectoutwardf
rom
theplasmamembr anetoformthecol
l
ecti
vecoatknownastheGl
ycocalyxare
predominantl
ymadeof :

 A)Pur
est
ruct
ural
fibr
ouspr
otei
ns

 B)Tr
igl
ycer
idesandPhosphat
idi
caci
d

 C)Gl
ycopr
otei
nsandGl
ycol
i
pids

 D)Chr
omat
inconj
ugat
es

CorrectAnswer:C)Gly
copr
oteinsandGl
ycol
ipi
ds>Rati
onale:TheGl
ycocalyxi
san
outercarbohy
drate-
ri
chcel
lul
arcoati
ngf
ormedspeci
fi
call
ybyt hebr
anching
ol
igosacchari
dechainsofi
ntegrat
edmembranegl
ycopr
oteinsandglycol
i
pids.

[Link]
sfoundt
ohaveexcept
ional
lyhi
ghthermalst
abi
li
ty,
iti
sty
pical
l
y
at
tri
butedt
oahigherr
ati
oofwhi
chcomplementar
ynit
rogenousbasepai
rs?

 A)Adeni
neandThy
minej
oinedby2hy
drogenbonds

 B)Guani
neandCy
tosi
nej
oinedby3hy
drogenbonds

 C)Adeni
neandUr
aci
lj
oinedby2hy
drogenbonds

 D)Guani
neandThy
minej
oinedby3phosphodi
est
erbonds

Corr
ectAnswer
:B)Guani
neandCy t
osi
nejoi
nedby3hydrogenbonds>Rati
onale:
GuanineandCy
tosi
ne(GC)basepai
ri
ngssharet
hreehy
drogenbonds,
whichrequi
re
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

si
gnif
icant
lyhi
gherki
net
ic/
ther
malenergyt
obr
eakcompar
edt
otheweakert
wo
hydr
ogenbondsfoundbetweenAdeni
neandThymi
ne.

[Link]
arlev
el,aGenei
sstr
ict
lydefi
nedacrossprovinci
altext
booksasa
sequenceofnucl
eoti
desalongapar
tofDNAt hatcodesspeci
ficall
yforthefor
mati
onof
a:

 A)Monosacchar
ideuni
t

 B)Si
ngl
efunct
ional
Pol
ypept
ide

 C)Phosphol
i
pidl
ayer

 D)Cor
est
eroi
dnucl
eus

CorrectAnswer :B)Si
nglefuncti
onalPolypept
ide>Rat
ionale:
Pertextbookdefi
nit
ion,a
geneisaoper ationaluni
tofDNAconsi sti
ngofaspecif
icli
nearsequenceofnucleoti
de
basest hatcarri
esthepreci
setri
pletgeneti
ccodeneededtoform asinglepol
ypepti
de
chai
norf unct
ionalRNAmol ecul
e.

[Link]
ularphosphol
ipi
dsismixedthoroughl
yint
oabeakerfi
ll
edwit
ha
completel
ynon-
polarorgani
csolventli
kebenzenei
nsteadofwater,
howwill
these
molecul
esspontaneouslyorgani
zethemselv
es?

 A)Theywill
form ast
andar
dli
pidbi
l
ayerwi
tht
hei
rhy
drophobi
ctai
l
sfaci
ngi
nwar
daway
fr
om thebenzene.

 B)Theywill
for
m amonol
ayerwi
tht
hei
rhy
drophi
l
icheadsf
aci
ngout
war
dint
othe
benzene.

 C)Theywil
laggr
egat
eintoani
nvert
edstr
uct
urewher
etheirhydrophobi
ctai
l
sface
out
wardint
othebenzeneandhydr
ophi
li
cheadscl
ust
ertogetherinsi
de.

 D)Theywil
lcomplet
elydi
ssoci
ateanddi
ssol
vei
ndi
vi
dual
l
ywi
thoutf
ormi
ngany
st
ruct
uredmolecul
araggr
egate.

Corr
ectAnswer
:C)Theywil
laggregatei
ntoaninver
tedst
ruct
urewher
ethei
r
hydr
ophobi
ctai
lsf
aceoutwardintothebenzeneandhydr
ophi
li
cheadscl
ust
ert
oget
her
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

i
nsi
de.

Rationale:Phospholipi
dsareamphipathic.I
nwat er,
thehydrophobictai
lshi
deinsi
deto
avoidwat [Link] er,
whenplacedinanon- polarsol
ventli
kebenzene, t
hechemical
[Link]-pol
arhydrophobictail
sareattr
actedtothenon-pol
arsolv
ent,
whilethepol arhydrophil
i
cheadsrepelthebenzeneandcl ustert
ightl
yinwardto
minimizecont actwithit.

[Link] calanal
ysisofadouble-st
randedDNAsampl eisol
atedfr
om anovel
bacter
ialspeciesreveal
st hatGuani
neconst i
tut
esexact
ly20%ofthetotal
nit
rogenous
[Link] sthetotalcombinedpercentageofpyri
midi
nes(Cyt
osine+Thymine)in
thi
sDNAsampl e?

 A)20%

 B)30%

 C)40%

 D)50%

Cor
rectAnswer
:D)50%

Rati
onale:AccordingtoChar gaff
’srul
esofcomplementarybasepairinginadouble-
str
andedDNAmol ecule,apuri
neal wayspai
rswit
hapy ri
midine(A=TandG≡C) .
Theref
ore,thetotalnumberofpur ines(A+G)wi l
lal
waysexact l
yequal t
het ot
alnumber
ofpyri
mi di
nes(C+T) .Nomat terthespeci
fi
cbaserati
osgiven,thetotalpyr
imidi
nesin
anystandarddoubl e-
strandedDNAsampl ewil
lal
waysconstitut
eprecisely50%.

[Link] ler
ibosomalRNA( r
RNA)andtr
ansferRNA(tRNA)occuri
nrel
ati
vel
yfixed
sizesandmol ecul
arweight
swithi
nacel
l,messengerRNA(mRNA)exhibi
tsextreme
heterogenei
tyinit
sstr
andlengt
[Link]
stheunderlyi
ngconcept
ualr
easonforthis
variat
ion?

 A)mRNAundergoesr
api
ddegr
adat
ionf
rom bot
hit
s5'
and3'
endssi
mul
taneousl
yinsi
de
thecy
topl
asm.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

 B)Thestr
uctur
algenesi
nDNAv ar
ysignif
icant
lyi
nthei
rnucl
eot
idecountdependi
ngon
thesi
zeofthespeci
fi
cpoly
pept
idetheycodefor.

 C)Thel
engthofmRNAdependsent
ir
elyonhowmanyr
ibosomeshappent
oat
tacht
oit
dur
ingt
ransl
ati
on.

 D)mRNAmol eculesfor
m complexl
oopsandl
ocal
i
zeddoubl
est
randst
hatphy
sical
l
y
shor
tenorl
engthenthem atr
andom.

Corr
ectAnswer:B)Thest
ruct
ural
genesinDNAvarysignif
icant
lyi
nthei
rnucl
eot
ide
countdependi
ngonthesi
zeofthespeci
fi
cpol
ypepti
det heycodefor
.

Rat i
onal
e: Perdef i
nit
ion,
agenei sanucleotidesequencethatcodesforapolypepti
de.
Becausecel lularprot
einsv ar
ydrasti
cal
lyintheirsi
ze(e.
g.,i
nsuli
nrequi
resamuch
smal l
erbluepr i
ntthanamassi vestruct
uralprotei
norenzyme), t
hemRNAmol ecul
es
transcri
bedf rom thesedif
f er
entgenesmustal sovaryproport
ional
l
yinlengt
ht ocarr
y
thecorrectnumberoft ri
pletcodons.

[Link]
outofcellmembranes,t
hecarbohydrat
ebranchesof
gl
ycoprotei
nsandgl ycol
ipi
dsarefoundst
ri
ctl
yproject
ingoutwardi
ntotheext
racel
l
ular
envi
ronmentratherthaninwar
dt owardt
hecytopl
[Link]
uralasy
mmet r
yexist
s
because:

 A)Thecytopl
asm cont
ainshighl
yact
iveenzy
mest
hatwoul
dimmedi
atel
ydi
gestt
he
est
erbondsofcarbohydrat
es.

 B)Thesecarbohydr
atechai
nsfunct
ioncol
lect
ivel
yasthegl
ycocal
yx,
acti
ngascel
l
-
sur
facerecept
ors,i
dent
it
ymarkers,
andrecogniti
onsi
tesf
orexter
nalsi
gnal
i
ng
molecul
es.

 C)Hydr
ophobicl
i
pidt
ail
spushsugarsintot
heext
racel
l
ularmat
ri
xbecause
car
bohydr
atesar
ecomplet
elynon-
polar.

 D)I
ntr
acel
l
ularpr
otei
nsrequi
reacomplet
elycar
bohy
drat
e-f
reeenv
ironmentt
omai
ntai
n
t
hei
rpri
maryaminoacidsequences.

Corr
ectAnswer:B)Thesecarbohydrat
echai
nsf
uncti
oncollect
ivel
yastheglycocal
yx,
act
ingascel
l-
surfacerecept
ors,i
denti
tymar
ker
s,andrecognit
ionsi
tesforexter
nal
si
gnali
ngmolecules.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

Rati
onale:Conjugatedmol ecul
eslikegl
y coprot
einsandgl y
col
ipi
dsformt hecell
'
sout er
"f
inger
print
"orGl y
[Link]
ybi ol
ogicalr
olesinvol
vecell
-t
o-cel
ladhesion,
ti
ssuerecogniti
on,andact i
ngasr eceptorsforhormonesorant i
bodi
[Link]
e, t
hey
mustfaceout wardt owardtheextracel
l
ul armatri
xtointer
actwitharr
ivi
ngsignal
s.

[Link]
sasanexcel l
entt
emperat
urebufferforl
ivi
ngorgani
smsduetoitshi
gh
speci
fi
cheatcapacit
[Link]
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofwat eri
sdefi
nedastheamountof
heatr
equir
edtoraisethetemper
atur
eof1gr am ofwaterby1°
[Link]
sstandar
d
val
ue?(UHSPastPaper )

 A)0.
5cal
ori
e

 B)1.
0cal
ori
e

 C)2.
4cal
ori
es

 D)574cal
ori
es

Cor
rectAnswer
:B)1.
0cal
ori
e

Rational
e:Thespecif
icheatcapaci
tyofwat eri
sexcepti
onal
lyhigh,exact
ly1.
0
calori
e/g°
[Link] tt
akesarelati
velylar
geamountofthermal ener
gytobreakthe
hydrogenbondsbetweenwat ermoleculesandr ai
sei
tstemperatur
e,prevent
ingsudden
thermalshocksincel
lul
arcytopl
asm.

[Link]
tinthexylem vessel
sofvascularplant
s,watermol
ecul
esare
pull
edupwar dinacontinuouscolumnwi t
[Link]
stensil
est
rengt
hrel
i
eson
"cohesi
on,"whichischemical
lydefi
nedas:

 A)Theat
tract
ionbet
weenwat
ermol
ecul
esandt
hehy
drophi
l
iccel
l
ulosecel
lwal
l
sof
xyl
em.

 B)Ther
epul
sionbet
weenwat
ermol
ecul
esandhy
drophobi
cli
pidst
ruct
ures.

 C)Themut
ual
att
ract
ionbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
wat
ermol
ecul
esv
iahy
drogenbondi
ng.

 D)Thet
her
mal
mov
ementofwat
erv
aporl
eav
ingt
hest
omat
a.
 CHAPTERBI
OLOGI
CALMOLECULES

Corr
ectAnswer
:C)Themut
ual
att
ract
ionbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
wat
ermol
ecul
esv
ia
hydr
ogenbondi
ng.

Rati
onale:Cohesionref
ersstr
ict
lytot
heattracti
onbetweenl
ikemolecules(
wat er
-t
o-
watervi
ahy drogenbonds),cr
eati
nghighsurfacetensi
onandtensi
l
est r
[Link]
on
ref
erstotheat t
ract
ionbetweenwatermoleculesandunli
kesurf
aces,suchasthe
cel
lul
osewal l
sofxy l
em.

[Link]
oseisadisacchar
idecommonlyproduceddur i
ngt
heenzy
mat
icbr
eakdownof
st
[Link]
oly
sisofasingl
emol ecul
eofMalt
osey i
elds:

 A)OneGl
ucoseandoneFr
uct
ose

 B)OneGl
ucoseandoneGal
act
ose

 C)Twomol
ecul
esofGl
ucose

 D)OneGal
act
oseandoneFr
uct
ose

Cor
rectAnswer
:C)Twomol
ecul
esofGl
ucose

Rati
onale:Maltose(
mal
tsugar)isadisacchari
demadeexclusivel
yoftwoglucoseuni
ts
j
oinedtogetherbyanal
pharightarr
ow4gl ycosi
dicl
i
[Link]
ngthisbondvia
hydrol
ysisr
estorest
hetwoindivi
dualgl
ucosemonomer s.