POPULAR PUBLICATIONS FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR Chapter at a Glance 2 the current between the es a three-terminal device with one terminal capable of controlling the cul other two. Symbol D D } bo of | s G Vos Vos. Vos - Vos = $ s Pig a Fig: (b) p~ channel JFET channel JFET JFET Parameters For understanding the important parameters. of FET, we re-draw the FET characteristics in simplified manner in fig below. We note that in the pinch-off region, the drain current Ip is practically constant but the graph has a small slope (a) Drain Resistance, r4 The drain resistance ry, of a FET is defined as _AVps Aly The typical value of r, ranges from 10 K ohms to $0 K ohm * 5 while Vos is held constant. (b) Transconductance, gy ‘Fransconductance, Ea» Of & FET is defined fined as t Al, he change in drai, current due to a change in the “Ve, While Vos is constant, Typical values of gq range between 2 6 mith. gate voltageie, 2, hos, (c) Amplification Factor, ps ‘The amplification factor, is defined gs a AVis hil BE DNag Mois constan, : BREA | { iBASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS. ENGINEERING-II We can re-write the equation as In =F Vor Mex) ‘ =p a Dd Ais Mg eons tant Al, Msg come tant AP 18 ly, ecomomy or M=g,xr, Small-signal Model of a FET We have seen the drain current Ip of a FET depends on gate voltage Ves and drain-to-source voltage Vos Ip = (Ves, Vos) Al, Using Taylor's series expression, A, [ Using small-signal notation, e.g, ig Alb; Ves = AVos: Vas = AVps, zs 1 Weeet i, = 2,.¥_ +, % This equation forms the basis of the small-signal equivalent circuit of FET as shown in fig. GATE G D | (bran) Pale ade A Fig: Small-signal Equivalent Circuit of FET (low frequency) — MOSFET These are called Metal oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) because of its construction in which srenelal gate is insulated by a layer of oxide from the channel. Because of the insulated gate Sorstruction, these MOSFET have very high input resistance Among MOSFE'TS there are two types, namely the Enhanceraent {ype MOSFET and the Depletion ‘ype MOSFET, the BEE-H-115POPULAR PUBLICATIONS D Enhancement MOSFET Symbol Go 6 s s pul cha 1 enhancement i fhannel enhancement Fig (b) ieee ; : Fig (a): p-c Sra type MOS type Depletion MOSFET p Symbol s Ss i g (b): n- pletion Fig (a): p-channel depletion Fig (b): n-channel dep! type MOSFET type MOSFET ‘Complementary Metal Oxide Semico inductor (CMOS) CMOS is most popular technology fe or the implementation of digital systems. The small size. case ‘of fabrication, and low power dissipati Hon of MOSFETs enable extremely high levels of integration ‘of both logic and memory circuits, Merits of CMOS Technology fource of the reasons for CMOS displacing follows: (a) CMOS logic circuits di : logic circuits S one can Pack more CMOS circuits on chip than i possible with bipolancireyig nS ES (b) The high input impedance of the MOS transistor allows the de : means for the temporary Storage of information in both | d ite. Thi technique cannot be used in bipolar cireuin aNd memory circuits. This (©) The feature size (ie, mininnry channel , ; . annel length) of the dramatically over the sears, with some tecentiy oF the Mos transistor has decreased 35005 HH cy reported desie i short ss 0.06um, This permits very Mahi cieuit packing ang ve" Milizing channel lenaths a8 of integration P ). Very high levels bipolar technology in divital applications are as Ssipale much less power than bipota signer to use ’ charge storage as a logic Nd comespondingh BEEALI 6BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING-II CMOS logic gate circuits: Combinational logic circuits, which are realized by CMOS technology. used in large quantities in a multitude of applications: indeed, every digital system contains large numbers of combinational logic circuits. Examples of CMOS logic circuits We can implement any logic gates (NOT, NAND/ANS. NOR/OR, XOR/XNOR ete.) or combinational circuits using CMOS technology,BASIC ELECIRICAL 6 Li rerieontecs HNGINLA FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER, OSCILLATOR = Chapter at a Glance — ee eee An ideal linear amplifier in the mid frequency region, provides an output signal that is an exaet oiica of the applied input signal, But, the practical amplifiers depart from the ideal one for several reasons The non-linearity of transistor characteristics, parameter variation, temperature effects ci. As a matter of fact, some of these factors can be minimized by improving the involved asic devices. However, there is a limit, beyond which this approach does not work. ‘The best approech is to use the principle of feedback to achieve a desired degree of improvement, the 'y be defined as a process of injecting some energy from the output and then return it back to the input (sing variety of transistors we can build switches, oscillators. amplifiers, modulators ete. but st ten inconvenient to use. While transistors remain the fundamental buildin; esting circuit elements, they have been combined with other circuit components into igurations and packages (known as IC) that function at a higher level and provide eater performance and reliability. This of course leads to a wide variety of devices and even new classes of devices. One of the most useful examples of these higher level analog devices is the ‘operational amplifier (Op-Amp). SING standard cont Feedback fevdhack signal (voltage of current) is applied in such a way that itis in phase with the mput u/ and thus increases it, then it is called a positive feedback. Sometimes. it is also known as crative feedback or direct feedback. Types of Feedback : The positive feedback increases the gain of amplifier. However. it produces excessive distortion for which it is seldom used in amplifiers. The positive feedback is used in oscillators. the feedback signal (e., voltage or current) is applied in such a way that it is out of phase with “ine input signal and thus decreases it. then itis called a negative feedback. Sometimes. itis also called as desenerative feedback or inverse feedback. Tne negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier. However, it improves the amplifier performance in many other respects. Thus @ negative feedback is frequently 2s well as with large-signal amplifier circuits Summary of Gain, Feedback & Gain with Feedback ouihe f _Voltaze Series | Voltage Shunt | Current Series T Cun Gain (A) without) V. Vv, | 1 } teedback Gain (A) with feedbackPOPULAR PUBLICATIONS iaaralaoe Back Connection type on Gain, itp & o/p Impedance [Voltage [Current iVoltage [Current {Series Series iShunt Shunt Za 1Z.- AB) iZ=AB) \Z-AB) \Zv(1-AB) Zor IZ AB) Z.(\ AB) [21> AB) TZ1=A8) Gain [Voltage amplifier Trans-conductance |Trans-resistance |Current amplifier | \decreases Amplifier decreases amplifier decrease _|decreasesOPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER * Chapter at a Glance Integrated Circuit An integrated circuit (IC) is one in which circuit components such as transistors, diodes, resistor, capacitors etc. are part of a small semiconductor chip. Scale of Integration i) Small scale integration(SSI): <10 components ii) Medium scale integration(MSI); <100 components iii) Large scale integration(LSI); >100 components iX) Very large scale integration(VLSI): >1000 components Op-Amp (IC741) An operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a linear integrated circuit (IC) that has a very high voltage gain, high input impedance and low output impedance. It can amplify signals having a frequency range from 0 Hz to | MHz approximately. Most commonly uses are in instrumentation, control system etc Op-Amp Symbol and Pin Diagram of IC741 Veo 741 1 chip “approximate sized Packaye containing the 741 3 6 Jourpar i“ s[opsun Offset Fig 1. (b) Pin diagram of 741 9 Ouput an (]2 E - Vee Fig 1a) Circuit symbol for 2741 BEE-L-165POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Block Diagram of a Typical Op-Amp Dual-inpot Complementary unbalanced output symmetry push- differential amplificr pull amplifier Ther mediate Stage Input Stage Emitter follower with constant current source Inventing input Inverting Terminal As seen from Figure | (a), one of the input terminals, labeled ‘-' is known as inverting input terminal. The word "inverting" implies that if a signal is applied to the ‘-' terminal of the op-amp, Z oa with the opposite polarity at the output, i.e., a sinusoidal signal will experience a phase shift of 180°. Non-inverting Terminal The other input terminal labeled "+" is called the non-inverting input terminal. In other words, a signal applied to this terminal of the op-amp is amplified without inversion. Working Principle The op-amp actually amplifies the difference between the voltages applied to its two input ‘terminals, Two further terminals are provided for the connection of positive and negative power supply voltages. Both polarities are necessary so that the output voltage can vary either side of zero volts. Most op-amps operate satisfactorily from a wide range of supply voltages and a few are designed to operate from a single-polarity supply. Differential Mode Operation The input circuit of an op-amp, which is driven by inverting and non-inverting inputs. is called @ differential amplifier. This means that the op-amp amplifies the difference between the voltages applied at the non-inverting input and inverting input. This point is illustrated in Figure 2. Jn this figure, v; is the voltage applied at the inverting input of the op-amp and vz is the voltage applied at the non-inverting input, The difference between the two voltages ie. v2-V1, (or Vi-v¥2) acts as an input to the op-amp. uP ve Fig: 2 Equivalent circuit BEE-II-166'S ENGINEERING I] ELECTRICAL & ELECTR Model of an Ideal Op-Amp This is a somewhat useful concept; the basic idea is that the two inputs have arbitrarily high input impedances and the difference in voltage of these acts as an independent voltage source with a high gain. The ideal OP-AMP represents a perfect voltage amplifier and is often referred to as Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS). Vo Nota vy v= AWAY) ea = Vie Ais of order 500,000 Ideally Op-Amp is a differential amplifier i.e. Vo=AaV«, but practically its output also depends on average voltage level V_ and the ovgrall output voltage is Vo = Ag Va + Ac Ve Va difference voltage Ag» differential mode gain V. > Common voltage ‘A. Common mode gain NowCMRR = 42 A To measure Ay, Let V Va=Vi-M2 1=5(K+¥,)=0" Now Vo = AuVa+ AcVe= Aux 1 = Aa oa So numerically O/P voltage becomes differential gain To measure A, let Vj = V2= Vi= 1V So that Va= Vi -V2=0V Now Vo = AgVatAcVe = Ac x 1 = Ae So numerically O/P voltage becomes common mode gain A 5 ©. CMRR(dB) = 20108, a Application of Op-Am, : ‘ ; ore ‘can behave a as amplifier, an adder, a differentiator, a integrator, a differential amplifier, a voltage to current converter etc, These are discussed in the question & answer section. BEE-II-167Common-mode Rejection Ratio (( ‘(CMMR) The output voltage of an op-amp is Proportional to the applied to the inverting and non-inverting terminals, Id equi difference between the voltages leally when the two voltages are gual. the output voltages should be zero. Average of the signals applied to the input terminals is called a common-mode signal, The output also depends on this av level. The ability of an op-amp to suppress common-mode signals is expressed in terms of its common-mode rejection ratio (CMMR). Mathematically, the common-mode reject io i: en by the relation, ic Differential mode voltage gain _A common mode voltage gain 4 Ac he common mode rejection ratio can also be expressed in decibels. CMRR = t Thus CARR = 20log,, 24 dB A :The input circuit o' op- s alw differential amplifier and in many cas ‘ f p-amp is always a differential amp! anc input circuit f ifferential amplifier MUSt be istors of the differen pean See at raente circuit Balanced, these base curren SC easlnbtin s Wale ie cuireite TS bech Hie opamps, due to manufen aaa hey qual. value However, in all pee na to base bias cur int should be of e : dlffererive betweer se fecti ys some differ ria of the o Le aoe Fei oe arte sum of the bias currents taken by each inp P-amp, bias current is averag teat, i e « i or leche es in the input currents of a balanced Sa ifferenoe le two terminals. Thus the difference in the currents drawn by the Op-Amp between th difference of the two input currents when output voltage is zero is defined as the input offset current #={1,-1,),,, re This value also should be ideally zero and is of order of few to several hundreds of nA. () Input Offset Voltage Ideally speaking, the Output: voltage of op-amp should be zero when the value of an applied voltage at both the input terminals is zero, However for any practical op-amp, it is found that the output Voltage does exit with zero input voltage. This voltage arises because of small imbalances within the Op-amp, . The input offset voltage of an ©p-amp is equal to the Output voltage for Zero input voltage divided by the pen-loop voltage gain of the amplifier. The i Fange of 10 LV to 7 mY for ©p-amps with bipolar t for op-amps with fj yet it is amplified “Most op- Voltage. SS ) Slew rate of an °Pp-amp is the maxim Pressed in volts Per mi has a slew rate of 0,5 Vis, This Means by 05 y EVery microsecond, If Maximum Permissible Value, in the figure given below, um rate at which its output Voltage is capable of crosecond (Vius), F th . For xample (1A 741 op-amp hat HA | op-amp can change P the Output volta e try - the signal w; Will be distorted, 8Veform ¢ higher than the This fact is illustrated BEE-II-179OP-AMP as an integrator The output voltage is a function of time obtained as the integral of the input voltage w.r.t time. This circuit is known as integrator. Integrators are used in ramp or sweep generators, in filters, and in simulation studies in analog computers. The analysis of the circuit is given below. Singe G is virtually at ground potential and input resistance of the Op-Amp is infinite. the Yo, flows into the feedback capacitor and produces the voltage Vu. input current (= 1g As we know oT paadaae os a9 al 1‘. V4 oe ‘i Hence V, can fia Pam fvae (Negative sign for inverting input) oo é This is, the output voltage Vo is equal to a constant ~ M .p times the integral of the input voltage Vin-BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ES DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Previously Digital Electronics was in ¥* semester, from 2011 it is in 2" semester —————— = Chapter at a Glance The meaning of the word ‘digital’ Information in the computer is represented by variables that take a limited number of discrete values. BINARY - DIGIT=BIT DECIMAL + DIG IT = DIT ‘NATURAL + DIG IT = NIT Digital Computer This computer performs computational tasks using the binary number system, having digits, 0 and 1. Information in this computer is represented by variables that take a limited number of discrete values, A binary digit is called a bit. Information is represented in digital computers in groups of bits. These types of computers will have two states: 0 and |. Digital Signal Digital signal are representation of discrete time signal which are often derived from analog signal. A signal, which can assume only two possible values is known as a digital signal. Voltage level 0 and 5 V are presence or absence of a pulse are digital signals. Analog Vs Digital System Analog System ‘An electronic circuit/system meant to process analog signal is known as an analog circuit /system eg., Amplifier, Oscillators. Digital System Y ‘An electronic circuit/system meant to process digital signals is known as a digital circuiv/system. e.g., Digital watch, Digital counter, etc. Advantages of Digital System 1. Easier to design 2. Accuracy level is higher than analog system 3. Information storage in digital system is easier, flexible and cost effective. 4. Digital system is less noise affected than analog system. Binary Digits p In analog signal any system has noise i, random variation. As signal is copied or transmitted over long distance the noise become dominant the actual signal. So it is very difficult to send any message to desire location in intact form. Digital signal are representation of discrete time signal which are ofien derived from analog signal. Most modern computer systems operate using binary logic, BEE-II-189PT a POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Logic Level The computer or any digital instruments represents values using two voltage levels usually OV fop logic 0 and either +3.3V or +5V for logic | Digital Waveform The response( rise time, peck over shoot etc.) of a circuit can be represented by the digital logic, Ar rst we have to consider the digital logic for the circuit of it’s maximum value(logic 1) & minimum value(logic 0). After that all data can be plotted in the graph after sampling quantizing the value. It will give the accurate measurement of the system: A numeral system is a framework where a set of numbers are represented by numerals in a consistent manner. It can be seen as the context that allows the numeral "II" to be interpreted as the binary numeral for shree, the decimal numeral for eleven, or other numbers in a different bases, Ideally. a numeral system will: Represent a usefi set of mumbers (e.g. all whole numbers, integers, or real numbers) Give every number * represeited a unique represemation (or. at least a standard representation) © Refle ct the algebraic and arithmetic structure of the numbers. Representation of Number Oe (Gait aMo) (Latin) - Integérpar i Fractionalpan Radix [Number system [Digit Symbols 2 Binary 0,1 3 Ternary 0, 1,2 4 Quatemary a3 5 Quinary 0, 1,2,3,4 8 Octal 0,1,2,3,.4, 56,7 10 |Decimat 9,1,2,3.4.5,6,7,8,9 12 |Duodecimal 9,1,2,3,4.5,6,[Link],8 16 __|Hexadecimal 9. [Link], 5,6,7,8.9, A. B.C.D.E.F Number Systems (Decimal Number) Decimal is real number expressed in base 10. It is composed of digits Lach digit in relation to the decimal point has : and one decimal point. Particular value, number, each place has a value that is eith ; nce decimal is a base of 10 , a ten times larger than the one on its right, or ten times“ aller than the one on its left. smaller than Decimal point ‘Yon thousands ‘Hundley keg Hundreds | Yen thousands Thousands: tens. Tens ‘Thousands BEE-II-190ited values for each position of a decimal number is as follows: 10*4 103 10*2 1041 10%0 10*-1 10-2 104-3) 10000 1000 100 10 1 tt. Binary Number Systems Most modern computer ystems (including the IBM PC) operate using binary logic. The computer represents values using two voltage levels (usually OV for logic 0 and either ~3.3 V or -SV for logic 1). With two levels we can represent exactly two different values. These could be any two diffe: nt_values, but by convention we use the values zero and one. These two values. coincidentally, correspond to the two digits used by the binary number system. Decimal to Binary Conversion Procedural steps(Integer part) Step 1 Divide the decimal number by 2 & note down the quotient & remainder. Step 2 Division of quotient occurred, by 2. until the quotient is no longer divisible by 2. Step 3 Equivalent binary number is read from bottom (MSB) to top (LSB) 100 LSB a Procedural steps (Fractional part) Step 1 Decimal fraction multiply by 2. Step 2 Record from answer occurred in step J), which is just before the decimal point. Step 3 Again multiply the fraction part in Step 2 and record the integer pant. 7 Step 4 Continue step 3 until fraction part is zero or upto some significant bits equivalent binary no. is record from top to bottom. e.g 10 MSB Mlustration 1 (17.23) 9 = (2)2 Answer: Integer part = 17 Quotient Reminder 8 1 LSB 4 0 2 0 1 0 : 1 MSB = 10001 Fraction part = 0.23 y ; Base Answer Record bit 0.23 x2 0.46 0 MSB 0.46 x2 0.92 ‘ 0.92 x 2 1.84 1 0.84 x 2 1.68 2 SB 0.68 x2 1.36 re Answer: 1000100111 BEE-II-191POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Binary to Decimal Conversion Procedural Steps integer part} ete . A binary number can Le cemented to its equivalent decimal by multiplying by their binary weights. The bits to the left of decima! point are multiplied by power and so on, from LSB to MSB respectively. The biss to the right of the decimal are multiplied by negative power of 2 ie_2*, 27.2? and soon. Binary to Decimal conversion by Stream line method: Integer part Step I: Wie the binary number Step 2: Write [Link]. 18..... eg. * under each binary number from write to left. 1 Step 3: \f binary digit is 1g decimal number. ee -- ates ae ne Step 4: Add remaining decimal weight to obtain the equivalent binary number. Procedural steps (fraction part): Szme as integer past, instead of 1, 2, 4. 8. 16 write 1/2, 1/4, 1/8. 1/16 below each binary number from: right to left after the decimal point. ek. o110 bygh Hegde 4 aan 16 Complements ‘Complement are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation. There are two types of complements for each base-r-system. 1. 1's complement 2. (r-1)'s complement when value of the base is substituted, the two types are received the names 2’s and 1's complement of binary number and 10°s and 9°s complement of decimal number. 1's Complement of Binary Number ; The 1's complement of binary number can be found by changing all | (one) to 0 (zero) and all 0 (zero) 10 | (one). Mlustration 1 Find 1's complement of (1011010); Answer: Changing all 1 10 0 is 0 ie p LO be pete I's complement = nananSINEERING-I BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS E 2°S Complement of Binary Number: Method 1: 2's complement of a binary number can be found by adding | to I's complement of binary number. Method 2: Start from the right and write the bits as they are upto the first | and take I's complement of remaining bits, Binary Addition Rules for Binary Addition ) 0+0 0 0+ 1 1+0 = le 141 = 0 with carry 1 re 2) Every pair of 1's (one) in a column, Produce a carry | (one) to be added. In next higher bit column, : Example: Perform the following addition FO10111 + 1011010 Answer: -10TTO00 01 Cal Result: 10110001 Binary subtraction Rules for Binary Subtraction 4) 0-0-0 0-1=1 with borrow I 1-0-1 1-1= 2) When borrow = 1. it is to be subtracted from the next higher binary bi Mlustration 1 oe the following subtraction Perform the flr eet Answer: (1) (1) borrow 1 1 0 Teper - 10 1 0a Resut=0 01 0101 Binary Multiplication Rules for binary multiplication: LL 0x0=-0 Ox 1=0 1x0=0 lets BEE-II-193POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 2. Binary multiplication is performed in the same manner as with decimal number. It involves forining the partial produets and shifling each successive partial products. Binary Division Binary division follows the same procedure as division in decimal number Subtraction with 1's or 9°s complement The subtraction of two positive number M & N using I's complement or 9° s complement may be calculated in the following manner. Procedural steps: ‘Step 1 Add the minuend M to the 1's complement (or 9's complement in case of decimal number) ‘of the subtrahend N. ‘Step 2 Check the result in Step | for an end carry. fa) Ifanend carry occurs, add | to least significant digit (end around carry) b) If an end carry does not occur take 1's complement (9's complement in case decimal number) of the number obtained in Step 1 and place a (- ve) sign in front of it. c) Subtraction using 2°s complement or 10°s complement d) Consider M & N two positive number for M —N. e) Step 1 Add minuend M with 2's complement of 10°s complement or subtrahend N. {) Step 2 Check in Step | for end around carry. If an end carry occurs. discard it. 2) [fend around carry does not occurs take 2's complement of 10°s complement of the number and put a (-ve) sign in front of it Basic Definitions 1. Boolean constants Boolean constant having only two values i.e., 0 and | or True and False. 2. Boolean Variables Same as ordinary algebra ie. X, Y, Z [Link] represent real numbers. Boolean variable having, only two values ie. Oand 1. Logic gate ae Ihe on electronic circuit, which makes logic decisions. It has one output and one or more inputs. ‘The output signal appears only for certain combinations of input signals, Truth Table ‘This table gives the output of all possible input combinations, ‘Types of Gates, © OR Gate AND Gate. NOT Gate. NOR Gate, NAND Gate. EX-OR Gate /KOR Gate / Exclusive OR Gate XNOR Gate / PX-NOR Gate! Exclusive NOR Gate. There are just three basic yates AND gate, OR gate. and NOT gate, _ Boolean Ope: "Several operation rations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR ete. which is known as boolean function. BEE-II-194ICTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Universal Gate Basic Idea i this gate all the boolean funtion can be implemented ie. all the d implemented. NAND Gate and NOR Gate are (wo universal gates. | system can be