Chapter 1

Script

The script is everything. The importance of script is: it has to be The guidelines in this chapter are not absolutes. Violating
on the page. some of these narrative principles should not keep you from
Be’ Garrett moving ahead if you feel strongly about the idea. You will
be living with this project for quite a while, so it is important
It all starts with an idea. For that idea to become a film; it that you feel passionate about the material and its message.
must be fleshed out and developed into a script or screen- Remember, though, that film and video are art forms that
play. The script represents the vision of the filmmaker in communicate via visual images. If the script cannot convey
practical form. It is also your guide through production. a message visually, it might not engage an audience.
From it, you know the story, the characters, the locations,
the approximate budget, the final length, and your target
audience. With a script, you can finance the production THE CREATIVE PRODUCER
and attract the creative team that will transform the script
into a final product. The first member of that team is the Developing the Script
director. Her job is to bring a personal vision to the mate-
rial by either rewriting the script herself or collaborating The first step in producing a short film is securing a script.
with the writer until the script best suits a production There are many ways you can do this:
based on her design. l You can write one yourself.
This is the model we are following in this book. l You can develop an original idea with a writer or
There are other scenarios as well. The director and pro- director.
ducer can develop an idea with a writer, or a director/ l You can adapt a script from another genre (a play or
writer can develop the idea and bring on a producer (most short story) or true story.
film school situations). In the latter case, the producer l You can find a script that is already written.
serves as more of a production manager than a creative
force. This scenario can lead to certain complications. The producer supervises the development of an idea
For example, even if the director is a good writer, the pro- until a director is brought on board to supervise the
cess may reach a point when the producer feels that the rewrites and prepare the script for production. What starts
script needs a fresh set of eyes. Negotiating this and other out as a simple notion might go through many evolutions
issues can be sticky unless the director is able to put her before it is ready to go before the cameras. The goal is
ego aside and focus on what is best for the project. to end up with the best script possible from your original
We believe that a productive synergy develops idea. No magic on the set will correct any unresolved story
through checks and balances. The give-and-take over all or structure problems. The old axiom holds true: if it isn’t
creative and financial decisions from script to screen is on the page, it won’t be on the screen. Be prepared to
not only healthy but essential in creating the best film work and rework the material.
from the material. Keep this in mind. However, whatever
approach is taken, there is one fact that cannot be dis- When I sat down with each of my actors, I knew the charac-
puted—without a well-crafted script, you cannot have a ters inside and out. I had one actor in particular, the only
good film. woman in the film, who had come to trouble trying to figure
This chapter introduces you to some necessary guide- out who her character was and how she fit into this whole
lines for writing a short film script. It does not, however, story as the wife of the judge. But because I had spent so
explore in depth the nuts and bolts of writing technique. much time on the rewrites, she had an entire character bible
that I had worked out so I was able to basically tell her who
We recommend that you consult books written specifically
she was.
about screenwriting for the short form. You’ll find sugges-
Be’ Garrett
tions in the Bibliography.

# 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

doi: 10.1016/B978-0-240-81174-1.00008-7 1
2 Chapter |1 Script

Producing a documentary script involves a different Because television offers very little product in the
process than generating a narrative text. The specific short form other than half-hour sitcoms, commercials, or
nature of developing documentary idea is addressed later music videos, it doesn’t come as a surprise that many
in this chapter. There may be those wishing to develop ideas developed by first-time filmmakers are better suited
an experimental or avant-garde short. “Experimental” is for the big screen. It may seem that the short form is lim-
not even considered a specific genre because the range iting in its creative and/or thematic possibilities, but after
of ideas for experimental projects is so enormous—from you study many short films and videos, it should become
abstract images to installations to nontraditional narratives apparent that ideas expressed in this form are limited only
(see Appendix B for more information of genres). by the imagination. All the short films selected for this
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences book touch on serious issues and themes.
Student Academy Awards has a specific category named Finding and viewing short films is much easier than
“Alternative.” If you want to understand what “alterna- it ever has been. Students and beginners have access to
tive” can represent, it’s best to review past winners of this YouTube, ITunes, Facebook, and the massive amount of
award. Compilations of student Academy Awards are now product on the behemoth called the Internet. Anyone with
available on DVD. We will reference a number of film- an audience of one can post something on YouTube.
makers and films to view to sample a little of what can The challenge is to sift through it all to separate the wheat
be done. (Appendix A on short films includes a list of from the chaff. Appendix B will be expanded to include
important experimental films and filmmakers) links to web sites for shorts as well as excellent short film
Whatever the genre, it is important to be able to create collections. It also contains recommendations for classic
a written representation of your idea, the script. Writing a shorts of all genres and how to find them. In addition,
good short script is difficult. The most common mistake the web site for this book will be updated to include
novices make is trying to explore complicated or grandi- recommendations for what we consider excellent examples.
ose ideas that are more suited for the feature film format.
They want to say it all in 10 minutes. The short film idea
I think that I had seen a couple of films on eating disorders, and
doesn’t have the time to explore more than one topic. I had a feeling that I knew what was out there. I did seek out one
It needs to be focused and specific. Simple is best. The film on beauty pageants, which was pretty irrelevant to this
six examples provided in this book are good scripts subject matter. But I do think that’s important. I didn’t want to
because they are simple stories told well. (See Appendix make a film like this if there was a film that had just come out
C and the web site for each film for the complete scripts.) a year earlier. I did enough of a search to convince myself that
there was really not one that took this particular perspective.
Probably the biggest influence—besides all the films I’d ever Jan Krawitz
seen in my life—was looking at student films, what was
working and what wasn’t. One thing that I thought wasn’t
Make sure to explore the range of genres—comedy, farce,
working was that the stories went all over the place and that
there was an emphasis on the technical rather than substance. drama, tragedy, or melodrama—to learn what is best suited
Adam Davidson to the short film. Comedies, for example, lend themselves
to the short form more comfortably than melodrama (film
noir, Western, murder mysteries, sci-fi), which usually
Do Your Homework requires the development of a more complex plot.
Many of the great filmmakers were influenced by
Before embarking on a production, see and study as many existing material. Orson Welles saw and studied John
shorts as possible to get a feel for the form and what can
Ford’s famous Western Stagecoach more than 50 times
be accomplished in its time frame. The length for shorts
while preparing to shoot Citizen Kane.
varies from 2 minutes (Bambi Meets Godzilla, United
States, 1969) to 34 minutes (The Red Balloon, France,
1956). Novices often struggle to develop stories for shorts I made a list of the films that really affected me as a child.
because they are not familiar enough with the kinds of One of them was An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (which
ideas that translate well into smaller packages. Shorts most people have seen). Then, of course, so did The Red Bal-
and features have dramatic principles in common, but in loon. In film school, I saw many other films, such as Truf-
faut’s Les Miston (The Brats). This film didn’t influence me
the same way that short stories are different from novels,
in a conscious way but filled me up emotionally. It was so
there are specific limits to the dramatic scope and range melancholy and beautiful that it made me want to run out
of stories. A character can fall in and out of love, discover and make films, even though I ended up making a film like
the meaning of life, or conquer a nation in two hours. Truman.
In 10 minutes, a character may only be able to get up Howard McCain
the courage to ask someone for a date.
Chapter |1 Script 3

What Is a Script? Magic and Celtx link to a scheduling and budgeting soft-
ware). Most can format your script as you type it and
A script is to filmmaking as a blueprint is to shipbuilding include every genre, including TV. They can be found
or as a score is to a symphony performance. Imagine the where computer programs are sold, and some companies
ensuing difficulties of a shipbuilder who begins construc- will send you a free demo disk.
tion on a boat with only a few sketches to work from, However, a story doesn’t have to be presented origi-
or the cacophony of a full orchestra trying to play a con- nally in screenplay format to make dramatic sense. You
cert from a sketchy musical score. Just as the drawings can work from a step outline or a treatment. A step out-
tell the shipbuilder exactly where to place the mast and line is, as the term implies, the story told in steps or story
the notes on the score tell the musicians what and when beats of one or two sentences describing the action and
and how loudly to play, so a script dictates how each the dramatic tension in each scene. A treatment, similar
member of the production team is to go about fulfilling his to a synopsis, is the bare bones of a story told in narrative
or her job. prose rather than in descriptions of individual scenes.
A script depicts the moment-to-moment progression of A treatment reads like a short story and can be as straight-
events by indicating what the audience will see and hear. forward as the way the case studies are described later in
Unlike a novel or a poem, the script is an unfinished work; this chapter. A step outline also represents the bare bones
it is only a part of the media-making process. It has no of the story, but is not concerned with dialogue, details, set
inherent literary value other than as a guide from which dressing, or minor characters, just the action of the scene,
a film is wrought. who does what to whom. Whatever method you use,
it is imperative that the idea eventually conform to the
standard script format.
I went to the Academy Award winning short screenings for a
A common format for documentary scriptwriting is a
few years. Of those I saw, three caught my attention.
two-column page: one side lists the visuals, and the other
The first, Two Brothers or Two Soldiers, is a film about
an older brother going off to World War II and his side lists the audio. The reader will get an idea of the show
12 year [old] brother who runs away from home and falls into by imagining these two elements together. However,
the recruitment center. That was a 40-minute short film, but it unlike the script in a narrative production, this is a form
had great production values and an epic story. that evolves after much of the footage has already been
The second was a French film called A Man Without a shot. Documentarians learn to be especially responsive to
Head, a fantasy about a society of underclass of people that their material. By the time the documentary gels, the story
live without heads. Incredible special effects. might have changed, taking a direction very different from
The third was [a] short told in a single shot with no dia- the original outline.
logue. It is about these refugees who are trying to cross a For example, in Errol Morris’s Academy Award–
border. It starts out on a vista and then all these people pop
winning documentary The Thin Blue Line, his original
up from [the] grass and begin walking. Suddenly, helicopters
intent was to interview inmates on death row in Texas.
and then soldiers appear and sweep around them, and take
them away. The final image is of one guy who has managed In the course of conducting the interviews, he met and
to escape the clutches of the soldiers. And this is all in interviewed a man who was to become the sole subject
one shot. of his film. Believing the man on death row to be inno-
All those shorts created their own special universe in a cent, Morris took his case to the film audience. The
very short time and were experimental—still great stories— argument was so compelling the man was retried and
but developed a world from a very unique perspective. eventually freed from prison. This example demon-
James Darling strates not only the adjustments documentary film-
makers undergo in the discovery process of their topic,
but also the power of cinema to make a change, to affect
What Does a Script Look Like? the world.
The scripts of The Lunch Date and Citizen in Appendix C
are presented in Writers Guild of America (WGA) stan- During the interview with my first subject, I asked way
dard screenplay format. This format is an industry conven- too many questions. After shooting 800 feet on that
tion that has a direct relationship to how the script is single interview, I reduced the number of questions from
photographed. (See Chapter 3 for more about screenplay eight to four and really simplified the content. Because,
format.) Writing a script in proper format has become sim- despite a “test” interview, I had overestimated how much
information I could cover in a 400-foot (11-minute) roll
plified with the availability of software systems. Some of
of film.
the current scriptwriting programs are Final Draft, Movie
Jan Krawitz
Magic Screenwriter, and Celtx Studios. (Both Movie
4 Chapter |1 Script

Where Do Scripts Come From? teachers would roll out on rainy days in fifth grade. I wanted
it to be fun to make. I wanted to enjoy it.
Scripts are developed from whatever might inspire you to
Howard McCain
express and communicate something in visual and dramatic
terms. All the following sources can serve as the basis for a
dramatic or documentary project:
The woman in The Lunch Date also has a personal rev-
Ideas Dreams elation. She and a homeless man share an unusual moment
Images Real events
together, and then she escapes back to the suburbs (see
Characters Fantasies
Concepts Memories Figure 1.1). This moment probably does not have the same
Historical events Real-life experiences impact on her life as the events in Truman do on the boy
Places Social issues because she is older. We see her experience the unex-
Adaptations from short stories News stories pected, which then affords her the ability to know the
Magazine articles
homeless in a new way. Both characters are changed in
You might be inspired by a single event that occurred on some way by the events of their stories.
a bus or train, an interaction between two people that strikes
you as funny or poignant, an uncle who told you wonderful I remember that several years before, I had heard a story sim-
stories as a child, or a favorite teacher who was a memorable ilar to the one I used in the film, which was a story about a
character. You might have a compelling need to express person misidentifying something of someone else’s as
something about the social conditions in your neighbor- belonging to themselves. And I thought this was a pretty
hood. The best scripts are written from the heart. They are human mistake that anybody could make and that I had prob-
based on subjects the writer knows on a first-hand basis. ably made somewhere along the line—assuming something
Truman focuses on conquering feelings of inadequacy about somebody else. So I played with the idea of setting this
in public. Most of us can empathize with Truman’s tran- story in New York and having the two most opposite people
scendental moment when his perception of himself in I could think of meet.
Adam Davidson
the world undergoes a major shift, a spurt of personal
growth.
Citizen tells the story of a young man in the not-too-dis-
During the summer, I kept notebooks full of different ideas, tant future who tries to escape from his homeland in the
random stuff. I kept drawing the picture of a little boy hang- dead of winter (see Figure 1.2). As this teenage boy is
ing from a rope. That image propelled me forward. I can’t chased by hunters through the harsh wilderness approach-
remember why. I also wanted to make a film that, if I were
ing the Canadian border, he is haunted by a fateful doctor’s
an eight-year-old boy, would amuse me. The sort of film
visit and the perilous choice he has made.

FIGURE 1.1 Two hungry diners, from

The Lunch Date.
Chapter |1 Script 5

FIGURE 1.2 A scene from Citizen.

that forthright (see Figure 1.3). To distract the young

I read about these deserters from the U.S. Military that
were seeking sanctuary in Canada. From my own family his- man from making a serious mistake, the barber digs into
tory—I am estranged from my father, but he did go to Viet- his past and tells a story of a key moment that changed
nam, I was aware of the Vietnam era draft dodging his life in the hopes that he can save the kid’s.
community. I also spent my life crossing the U.S./Canada bor-
der visiting my extended family in Arkansas and Texas. I had an idea to do a film. I began to kick around this idea of
Around those ideas I started thinking about what might happen what kind of movie would I want to do that would be, particu-
if this trend continues, if the wars that America are waging are larly to me and my past and my history, that I would want to
escalated just a little further so that people were calling for a convey to others. I’ve always loved being in a barbershop. I
military draft. Small advocacy groups—more on the anti-war remember going back home to Philadelphia and being in a bar-
side would not be fighting this war if everyone was at risk. bershop my cousin owned at the time with my mom and my
James Darling cousin, and I’d begin to tell them about the idea, the genesis
of the idea which was this guy who comes into the store, and
he’s talking to the barber, but I need something to happen
A Nick in Time is the story of an old-school barber in between the barber and the guy, and I’m thinking about maybe
having some sort of twist where the barber tells him something.
Brooklyn, New York, who is confronted by a young man
Be’ Garrett
wanting a haircut but whose intentions do not seem to be

FIGURE 1.3 Characters from A Nick in

Time.
6 Chapter |1 Script

FIGURE 1.4 A masked woman surrounded

by mannequins, from Mirror Mirror.

The film Mirror Mirror focuses on the topic of how

As a going away gift when I left Israel I received a short book
women perceive their bodies. The filmmaker had a spe- by Etgar Keret, the writer with whom I now work. I finished
cific theme to explore and set about devising a situation it on the plane. It was about 50 short stories of his. I thought
that would allow women to express their innermost every single one of them should have been a short film. In
thoughts (see Figure 1.4). fact, I think since they do lend themselves so well, more than
a hundred of his stories were adapted to short films at this
point. I adapted quite a few of them through many different
I believe that this self-deprecation and striving for an unat-
classes at NYU, and when it came time to have my senior the-
tainable body type is a generalized experience among a lot
sis project made, that story “Crazy Glue” was just so beauti-
of women. All you have to do is eavesdrop in department
ful. I thought it was the most beautiful short story I ever
store dressing rooms or women’s locker rooms to hear the
read. It also had a lot of magical realist sensibilities to it.
laments that women have about their bodies.
I thought it was very appropriate for stop motion animation.
Jan Krawitz
Tatia Rosenthal

Crazy Glue is an animated clay puppet short adapted

How Are Scripts Developed?
from a story by Israeli author Etgar Keret. This clayma-
tion (see Glossary) film tells the story of one innovative You should always be on the lookout for interesting mate-
attempt to patch up a disintegrating marriage—through rial. Turn your eyes and ears outward to the world around
the use of Crazy Glue! you and write down the events that you observe in your
Whereas Truman, The Lunch Date, A Nick in Time, quest for a good idea or story in a notebook or diary. If
Citizen, and Mirror Mirror are original ideas, Crazy Glue you use a computer, you can file incidents in a database
is an adaptation. Writer Etgar Keret is one of the leading under a variety of tags. Moments in life happen at break-
voices in Israeli literature and cinema. Since the late neck speed. You might think at the time that you will
1990s, he has published three books of short stories and remember them when you go home at night, but chances
novellas, two comic books, two feature screenplays, are you will have forgotten some significant detail that
and numerous teleplays. His stories have been published struck you as funny or compelling.
in 15 different languages and have gained both critical One result of typing and storing material is that you
acclaim and success with the public. His book Missing remember it better. Good ideas beget good ideas. The events
Kissinger was named one of the 50 most important books you write down will stimulate your imagination further.
written in Hebrew. Your writer’s notebook could contain these categories:
Chapter |1 Script 7

Characters: Short films are mostly character based, deal with this accumulation of ideas and material is to
so keep detailed notes of people who could be the basis “workshop them” with interested people. Ideas that are
of a story. We have all met people who in one way or spoken out loud have a different impact than those that
another fascinate us. These could be ones you know very are read. They can either sound better than you thought
well or not at all. It could be what they do, how they do it, or fall flat. Not only can you test an idea or concept on
or what they know that interests you. Interesting people an ad hoc audience, but, more important, these verbalized
you see on a train or plane or meet at a party. Note how ideas will be stimulating. A thought or image conjures up
they look and dress and any unique behavior or manner- different impressions in each person’s mind. If one of
isms. Human actions form the core of drama, so people these ideas becomes the core of your final script, these
are the most obvious starting point for a writer. brainstorming sessions will serve as a bond and the start
Locations: Places create mood. Be on the lookout for of a long and fruitful collaboration that will, it is hoped,
visually interesting spaces that serve as compelling continue throughout the entire process.
backdrops for dramatic encounters. Because certain
behavior tends to occur in specific places, locations There was a phase in the middle of writing the script where I
can serve as inspirations for story ideas. went off and tried to make it a little bit of a self-reflecting
Objects: Curious or evocative objects. They could be piece where the husband was going to go to work, and at
interesting pieces of clothing, objects found around work he’s a three-dimensional animated character. So he goes
the house, key chains. Objects in films can take on a to work, goes to the computer, and his job is to move inside a
significance based on the circumstance in which they computer. It was quite amusing, but technically it would have
are placed. made the script much much harder to produce. I ended up tak-
Situations: Revealing or telling situations that you witness ing all of that out and going back to the original story as it
or experience firsthand. was. The only one reference I left in there was when the
Unusual or Revealing Acts: Witnessing people act or woman is having an argument with her husband. She is doo-
dling inside of a cookbook, and what she has done is made a
behave in a way that reveals something powerful and
flipbook inside the cookbook. That was the little leftover of
unique about their character. that idea.
A News File: Save good stories in a folder that could Tatia Rosenthal
serve as an inspiration for a documentary or narrative
idea. Look at old magazines and newspapers that have
items that are noncurrent material that no one else is During the workshop phase of development, it might
using. be necessary to develop many ideas before you discover
Picture File: Collect pictures from magazines, newspa- one that reflects your own voice and that also suits the
pers, and the Internet. Inspirations can come from dra- short form. There is no easy or quick path; there is only
matic pictures from war, crime situations, fashion a process that if pursued on a regular basis will ultimately
images, or any images that stimulate your imagination. result in a story that you believe in and want to tell.
People say a “picture is worth a thousand words.” Be
on the lookout for those telling ones.
Dream/Fantasy Journal: Your dreams and fantasies are a
The big thing I was struggling with is; how did I feel about
sure indicator of your underlying concerns. Keep a
the character? I was definitely putting myself in the charac-
notebook by your bed and write down each dream ter’s shoes. What would I do in this situation? Ultimately, I
while you remember it. This part of your journal is decided that I did not want the film to necessarily take a point
for you to let your mind take off in any direction it of view on the character. I wanted to inspire conversation
wants, stimulated, we hope by the collection of mate- afterwards. It was that idea that eventually got me to the con-
rial you collect. cept: what if you really do not know what is going on until
Themes: Themes grow out of who you are and what you very near or close to the end of the film. That is when I had
believe. They are the heart and soul of good stories. one of my early writing teachers at NYU give me one note.
Write down themes that intrigue you or you feel deeply It is a Twilight Zone episode. It is perfect. I was like—okay.
about. When you see a film or read a story that speaks James Darling
to your own sensibilities, make note of it.
Adaptation
Workshop Your Idea
The beginning filmmaker may also look for ideas for a
All the information you collect can be transformed into short project from preexisting material. In our list of
many different scenarios. Mix and match the various char- where scripts come from, we site short stories, real-life
acters, evocative situations, and locations in your journal. experiences, news stories, historical events, real events,
Look for unlikely relationships. A constructive way to and magazine articles.
8 Chapter |1 Script

The history of motion pictures has been dominated by

Filmmaking today encourages the writer/director auteur and it
adaptations, mostly from novels. At the height of the stu- is a bit of a shame because when you have the same person
dio period in the 1930s, Hollywood was turning out more write and direct, you miss one generation of imagination.
than 600 films a year. To supply this pipeline of production, I think adapting from a book is having that one extra genera-
studios looked to material that had already proven itself tion of imagination in both writer and person. I think it
in the marketplace. Novels served this purpose. Although becomes more profound and valuable.
the studios in the United States produce nowhere near that Tatia Rosenthal
number of films a year now, roughly half are adapted from
another medium, usually from a novel or play.
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Rights
honors the craft of adaptation; a separate Oscar is given
to best adaptation in addition to best original screenplay. If you have found a story, comic book, magazine article,
Yet there are few books devoted to adaptation and only or video game that you want to adapt, the first step would
a handful that reserve a substantial section for this craft. be to find out if the underlying rights to the material are
Most how-to writing manuals focus on creating original available. This step is a very important, and it is one that
stories. Although all the important lessons about dramatic many beginning filmmakers fail to take. If the rights are
writing apply, the ability to transpose a well-written short available, you can take the next steps. If they are not,
story (or even a real-life incident) into a film script you will have saved yourself from a lot of effort for noth-
requires a specific discipline. ing (unless you were using the process as an exercise).
However, we suggest another step before approaching
the author or the author’s agent. Spend some time thor-
Why Adapt?
oughly scrutinizing the story’s potential for the screen.
One obvious reason to adapt is that you have already Come up with ideas on how to adapt the work. If you
found a story that has inspired you to produce it as a are lucky to be able to contact the author personally, hav-
motion picture. A short story comes with built-in charac- ing a well-thought-out plan may be a key selling point in
ters, plot, setting, and a theme or central idea. You may receiving the author’s permission. If you are not offering
have been moved by the words on the page; now you want a lot of money, you will have demonstrated that you have
to transfer those feelings to the screen. done your homework. You have nothing to lose and every-
There may be a short story that you always loved that thing to gain. This step also should solidify your belief in
you thought had dramatic or visual potential. It could have the dramatic and visual potential of your story
been written years ago and by someone not well known.
It doesn’t have to be an example of classic literature (because
these stories may be out of your price range as well). Some Legalities
successful adaptations have come from mediocre books or
Rights and Adaptations (Preexisting Material)
stories. What they did offer was a strong plot. There is a
well-worn axiom that the best books make the worst movies For the privilege to profit from the commercial sale or
(not always true). This has something to do with the expecta- rental of your short film or video, rights to original mate-
tions that come with adapting a classic. We have all experi- rial must be purchased. This is also true if you intend to
enced the reaction of “it wasn’t as good as the book.” post your short project on the Internet. This gives you
At the same time, adapting a story by a well-known author complete control of the story in that medium. For a well-
can open doors to film financiers in a way original scripts known story, commercial rights can be expensive, if not
or scripts adapted from obscure works cannot. prohibitive, for a producer on a limited budget.
Another reason to adapt is that original ideas may be It is essential for you to obtain permission to use exist-
harder to come by. Developing an idea from scratch, alone ing material or even to dramatize someone’s biography
or with a writer, may be more challenging than working unless that person is within the public domain as a public
with already-established material. But don’t think that figure (e.g., Madonna, Tom Cruise). If you read about
adapting a preexisting work is any easier. (This also goes some extraordinary man in the newspaper, get permission
for true stories that we will address at the end of this sec- to write about him. You’ll also need permission from the
tion.) Literature is another medium with its own set of author of the article if she has exclusive information about
rules. Capturing the spirit of the work but placing it in the subject.
another package can be equally if not more challenging If you find a short story you like, make a legally bind-
than developing an original idea for the screen. In this sec- ing arrangement with its author for the right to use it as the
tion, we will discuss some strategies to help you discover basis for your film. Contact the author’s representative,
if the story you are considering is an appropriate candidate perhaps an agent or an attorney, through the publisher. If
for a successful adaptation. the author is deceased, an agent or lawyer will represent
Chapter |1 Script 9

the estate. If you have a personal relationship with the A simple letter of agreement (see our web site, http://
author, you might want to bypass the publisher, agent, or [Link]/companion/IrvingRea/) between
attorney and appeal directly to the author. This approach you and the author will make the process legal. This letter
might also be worth trying in the case of well-known is your protection against future disputes concerning
authors whose representatives categorically reject any ownership or division of any profits.
request from unknown producers.
In any case, make no assumptions. You make think Copyright
that a story is out of your reach, but you’ll never know
unless you ask. Nothing ventured, nothing gained. The copyright law protects you from someone copying
This philosophy applies to all aspects of filmmaking. what you have written. A copyright certifies that the mate-
The work might be in the public domain and free to rial existed on a certain date. If someone presents the same
use if it has been 70 years since the author’s death. project later, you have grounds for a claim of copyright
A book is in the public domain when its copyright infringement. However, copyright law does not protect
protection has expired. Examples are stories by Aesop, ideas. It protects only the “expression of an idea that is
Dickens, or those from the Bible. If you have any doubt fixed in a tangible form.” This means that an original
as to what is or isn’t in the public domain, write to the treatment, outline, or screenplay is protected, but the ideas
copyright office: Reference and Bibliography Section, behind them are not. The more fully your ideas are rea-
LM-451 Copyright Office, Library of Congress, lized, the more protection you have. A complete screen-
Washington, DC 20559. play will be protected more than a short treatment.
Register only the first draft unless the story changes dra-
matically from one draft to another.
Securing rights was a concern. With “Crazy Glue,” Etgar Before applying for copyright, make sure to register
Keret had an agreement with his publishers who owned the your treatment or outline with the Writers Guild of Amer-
rights for his stories at the time that he can just grant students ica. Taking this step doesn’t protect you legally, but it helps
the right to use the material. It becomes an issue when money
establish the history of the creation of your script—a paper
exchanges hands. I just had to ask his permission and I could
do it. Maybe I should have had it in writing, but as soon as
trail so to speak. Make sure that the cover of your treatment
you know somebody—you know if you can trust—the reality or script contains the WGA registration number and the
they are presenting—he is a very trustworthy person. maximum amount of information about you: your name,
Tatia Rosenthal address, phone number, email, agent (if applicable).
WGA registration is available for everyone, and the
cost is very low (around $30). The WGA gives the treat-
Noncommercial/Festival Rights ment or script a number, puts it in a sealed envelope,
and stores it in a vault for 5 years. No one can withdraw
Film students and beginners exhibit their work primarily
your script but you. The entire process can be handled
at festivals, museums, or conferences (on the Internet
online at [Link].
as well, but these issues will be covered separately in
To obtain a copyright from the Library of Congress,
Chapter 19). A basic use of a short work is as a spring-
you can get a copy of FORM PA from the copyright office
board to future employment. Prizes at festivals are not
web site at [Link]/forms or by calling 202-
considered profit, so it might be possible to strike a deal
707-9100. There are many registration forms, each for a
with the author’s representative for a noncommercial or
different kind of work. These forms can be filled out and
“festival license.” These licenses are easier to obtain than
sent back or processed online. It may take months to hear
commercial rights. They’re also cheaper—sometimes even
back, so be patient.
free. It is suggested, however, that you obtain a quote for
A documentary producer must secure the rights to tell
full rights and mention this amount specifically in your
the story of a particular subject. Rights are not necessary
festival license agreement. That way, you will know
when dealing with historical or public figures, however.
exactly what your licensing budget would be if a distribu-
Private subjects must sign a release (see our web site)
tor is interested in your film. (This principle applies to
providing the producer with all rights necessary. If you have
music rights as well.)
any question about the process of securing rights to a non-
public figure or subject, consult an entertainment lawyer.
Original Material
On the opposite end of the spectrum is an original story
Basic Guidelines for the Short Form
written directly for the screen. The producer has already
discovered a screenplay that he wants to produce. If you How do you evaluate an idea for a script? Short films can
decide to go this route, you should purchase the rights to be developed from many different kinds of ideas. How-
the material from its author, even if only for a dollar. ever, there are limits to what can be accomplished in the
10 Chapter |1 Script

short form. Because most beginners are not familiar with The theme represents the reason why you want to
its format, let’s examine these common attributes and fur- make the film in the first place: to say something about
nish a critical point of view. The following are general the human condition. In Truman, the theme is conquering
guidelines; there will always be exceptions. a fear. The Lunch Date is about letting go of one’s preju-
Let’s examine what Truman, Mirror Mirror, The dice. Crazy Glue is an intimate story about a lonely wife’s
Lunch Date, Crazy Glue, A Nick in Time, Citizen, and a attempt to draw back her philandering husband. Mirror
few classic shorts have in common. This will give you a Mirror centers on how women see themselves juxtaposed
greater understanding of the dramatic parameters of the with society’s mirror. In A Nick in Time, success or failure
short form. Make sure to use these guidelines when you in life can hinge on only one moment. One person can
watch and critique other short works. make a difference in your life. All the scenes in your film
The screenwriting process is about research, discovery, should be subordinate to the main theme. If a scene
and crystallization. Watching your story develop is an doesn’t support your theme, eliminate it.
exciting experience. The final result should feel as if each
scene is in the right place.
Achieving this feeling, however, comes from patience That is what it has always been about for me, the communica-
and hard work. You will soon understand the age-old rule: tion of ideas and stories: The desire to express oneself.
What has really happened in the last few years with the
writing is rewriting. Subscribe to it. Be satisfied only with
web, with YouTube, with a lot of traditional media going
the best you can do. onto the web, but also with amateur user generated content,
filmmaking has become the new writing. There is writing that
Length is published in a novel form, but there is the writing we do
everyday between each other. Filmmaking, whether it is
Is there an ideal length for a short? (The Academy of video conferencing, recording personal greetings; it has
Motion Picture Arts and Sciences’ length requirement for become ubiquitous in everything. So the big challenge that
a short is up to 40 minutes.) The best length is the one that I and my peers seem to be facing is where does art begin?
satisfies your particular story. Work from this point. If you If everyone can do this—at different levels certainly—but what
are concerned about the ideal length for distribution mar- is culture vs. what is communication? It is a big question.
kets, submit your proposal or script to several distributors James Darling
for feedback. If you have already found a market for your
picture, the ideal length might be predetermined.
Look at the length of films at well-known festivals. Conflict
What is the average time? Films in the 10-minute range A basic element common to all visual drama is the need
usually have a better chance of festival acceptance for a specific and identifiable conflict. Conflict creates
because festival organizers like to program as many as tension. Tension engages the viewer’s emotions, it keeps
possible. YouTube shorts are even shorter. At the end of them engaged, until the conflict is resolved and the tension
the day, your film is as long as it needs to be to tell the is relieved at the end of the piece.
story. What is conflict, and how is it created? Conflict is realized
through characters. Someone wants something or is unhappy
STUDENTS or unfulfilled in some way, takes action, and meets with con-
Eager to impress people with their talent, beginning film-
flict. Most narrative stories begin by establishing a problem,
makers often want to say too much with their short film dilemma, or goal. The process of working out this issue
project. They tend to compress feature-length ideas into defines the drama. Obstacles to solving the problem intensify
10-minute pictures. Resist this temptation. the conflict. The necessity of overcoming obstacles to resolve
the conflict places a greater value on the lesson learned.

The Central Theme

The Law of Conflict: Nothing moves forward in a story except
The central theme is what the story is all about. It is the through conflict.. . . As long as conflict engages our thoughts
raison d’être, the cement that holds the story together. and emotions we travel through the hours unaware of the voy-
Themes are concerned with universal concepts—love, age. Then suddenly the film’s over. We glance at our watches,
honor, identity, compromise, responsibility, ambition, amazed. But when conflict disappears, so do we. The pictorial
greed, and guilt—that are experienced and shared world- interest of eye pleasing photography or the aural pleasures of
wide. The universal quality of these ideas and emotions a beautiful score may hold us briefly, but if conflict is kept on
hold for too long, our eyes leave the screen.
helps ensure that the audience will relate to the material
Robert McKee, Story: Substance, Structure, Style and the
on a deeper level than the plot. Without this unifying
Principles of Screenwriting
ingredient, there is no purpose or meaning to the work.
Chapter |1 Script 11

The Basic Conflicts overcome his fear and climb the rope. Once he does, the
conflict is resolved, the tension is diffused, and the story
Different kinds of conflict are possible in a story, regard-
ends.
less of whether it’s fictional or nonfictional:
The conflict in Mirror Mirror is one of individual ver-
Individual versus self (internal) sus nature, society, and self. The goal is for the women to
Individual versus individual (personal) accept their physical appearance. Tension arises from the
Individual versus society (social environment) fact that their looks are at odds with society’s standards
Individual versus nature (physical environment) of beauty. This tension is intensified by the emphasis
and importance our culture places on how a woman’s
Each one of these conflicts, alone or in combination,
body looks.
draws our attention to the plight of the main character,
In each of these stories, the filmmaker sets up an
or protagonist, when confronted by personal or another
expectation by establishing a conflict. We are engaged
individual’s demons, or the forces of society, or nature.
by the main character’s need to overcome the conflict
The filmmakers create a deep emotional connection
and deal with the problem, and we will be satisfied only
between the audience and the protagonist by clearly
when the conflict is resolved. If the characters could get
identifying the protagonist’s dilemma.
what they wanted easily, there would be no story.
Citizen employs three levels of conflict: individual ver-
Equally important, the basic conflict existed even
sus society (the state), individual versus nature (physical
before the story began. Truman was scared to climb the
environment), and individual versus self (personal loss).
rope ladder, and the woman of The Lunch Date had her
The young man, fleeing from the draft, not only must
social prejudices well before the film began. The story
overcome rough terrain, snow, a formidable wall, and
setting presents a situation to reveal conflict that already
the border patrol to make it to Canada, but also face never
exists. There is no time to develop conflict in a short
seeing his parents again.
piece, so conflict should be inevitable.
The protagonist in The Lunch Date faces two levels of
conflict: internal and personal. Her goal is to eat her salad.
The obstacles are the homeless man (personal) and her
The Dramatic Arc or Spine
prejudices (internal). This is the basis for conflict. How
she deals with this unexpected situation creates a tension Every story should have a beginning, a middle, and an
that will be resolved only when the woman either gets end—but, as Jean-Luc Godard once said, not necessarily
her salad or does not. The tension created by this expecta- in that order. In Truman, Crazy Glue, and The Lunch Date,
tion impels us to watch. We are eager to learn how she A Nick in Time, and Citizen, each main character has a
will handle this unique situation. Will she overcome her goal (the rope, the husband, the salad, the need to con-
aversion to the homeless man? The transition from outrage vince the young man, the border), and each has an obsta-
to mutual respect is a satisfying leap for the character and cle (fear, her husband’s indifference, the homeless man,
the audience. the possibility of violence, the border patrol).
Crazy Glue shows a lonely wife’s attempt to draw back Most narrative stories can be reduced to this
her philandering husband through the use of common basic formula of goal-obstacle-resolution, creating this
household glue. This individual versus individual story progression:
has a universal appeal.
Beginning (setup)
Truman employs three levels of conflict: individual
Middle (development)
versus society, individual versus individual, and individual
End (resolution)
versus self. The class represents society and is punished
because of Truman’s weakness. By overcoming his fear This can also be stated in terms of character:
and climbing the rope, Truman is accepted to the bosom
Someone wants something
of the group. The film also deals with the conflict of indi-
Takes action
vidual versus individual, with the coach as the antagonist.
Meets with obstacles (conflict)
He tries to humiliate Truman into climbing the rope,
That leads to a climax
thereby forcing the boy to make his final decision.
And a resolution.
These two levels are, however, extensions of the pri-
mary conflict that is at the heart of the story: Truman’s This formula creates the natural arc or spine of all narra-
internal conflict with himself. His need to climb up the tive and non-narrative drama. All stories follow this pro-
rope (and his fear of doing so) is the reason the story gression. The problem is introduced, developed, and then
exists. As an audience, we strongly identify with that need resolved. When the resolution has been achieved, the story
and are emotionally involved in finding out if Truman can is over.
12 Chapter |1 Script

apart, but the “realtime” or event of the film is the time

My whole script hinges upon the fantasy sequences. They are
small and contained in the final film, but they are very impor- it takes for one haircut. By experiencing the illusion of
tant in showing who the main character is. What role they realtime, the audience is brought into the immediacy of
play in the film constantly changed. Originally, they were the drama. The director’s challenge then becomes to show
the entire film. But as the story developed, they became what is outstanding about this bit of time.
shorter and their importance changed. They became more an Citizen focuses on creating a relationship between two
element of surprise and gave clues showing what Truman events: the physical exam and the young man’s run for the
was feeling. But this weeding out and connecting occurred border. The time frame for the connection is clearly more
over 13 drafts; eventually, however, the fantasies found their ambiguous. The event in Mirror Mirror is the coming
proper place in the story. together of many women to express their feelings about
Howard McCain
their bodies. The single event is an important element in
the success of each film. In a short of less than 30 minutes,
it is difficult to balance any more.
The story should have some twists and turns along the By focusing on the playing out of just one event, the
way (complications) to add tension to its development. filmmaker can fully explore the event’s dramatic potential.
Either the characters or situations cause the events of a This simplicity of purpose frees her to give depth to the
story. In the case of Truman, each time Truman attempts piece. The audience comes away satisfied because their
to climb the rope ladder, his fantasies distract him from expectations have been fulfilled.
achieving his goal. The Lunch Date has several unex-
pected twists along the way. First, the homeless man
allows the woman to share his salad; then, he buys coffee It was out of necessity that the structure had to be non-linear
for her; and finally, she discovers that it wasn’t her salad in order to keep the audience guessing. This allowed us to
after all. In Crazy Glue, the use of the key prop, a tube jump to this and then jump to that. My big influences were
of glue introduced in the first scene, becomes the “bond” definitely the construction of Memento along with the Twi-
light Zone mystery aspect. Coming to terms with non-linear
that reunites the married couple.
construction was a crystallizing moment as I started to
The additional twist of A Nick in Time is the reveal that write.
the one getting the haircut is actually a cop who had his James Darling
gun drawn under the cape the whole time. Citizen, on
the other hand, plays with ambiguity of time. It is not clear
if the young man had his “physical” for the army before It’s not always necessary to work within a confined
deciding to flee or after. time period to create a successful story. Le Poulet (The
Each of these events defies the dramatic expectation of Chicken), a 15-minute Academy Award–winning short
the story setup. They give each story its originality. The film written and directed by Claude Berri (B&W, 1963),
director can map these emotional beats out on a graph so takes place over a period of days. Le Poulet is the story
that no matter what scene is being shot, she can under- of a young French boy who becomes so fond of a rooster
stand the dynamics of each moment and its relationship that his parents bought for Sunday dinner that he secretly
to the whole. This map allows the director to communicate decides to convince them that it’s a hen. He steals an
with the creative team out of sequence. For example, egg from the refrigerator and places it under the rooster.
knowing what transpires in scene 4 will inform her work This ploy works until one morning when the rooster wakes
with an actor in scene 3. If the actor plays scene 3 too up the father with its crowing. Frightened that his parents
forcefully, he may have nowhere to go emotionally for are now going to kill the bird, the boy pleads for its life.
the climax in scene 4. The parents, surprised and touched by the boy’s attach-
Most of these principles hold true for the documentary ment, decide to let him keep the bird as a pet.
form. A documentary also needs a dramatic arc by which The story focuses on a single conflict that arises out of
it can tell a true story. the main character’s goal to keep the rooster as a pet. That
conflict takes place over a week, not hours. The film is
One Primary Event told in small vignettes that underscore the young boy’s
dilemma and how he attempts to resolve it.
A short film should focus on a single event around which
the action of the story revolves. Crazy Glue, Truman, The
Lunch Date, and A Nick in Time are stories told in a
One Major Character
contained time period: in Crazy Glue, prying his wife off
the ceiling; in Truman, climbing the rope; in The Lunch Truman, The Lunch Date, and Citizen are all approxi-
Date, sharing a salad. In A Nick in Time, the story parallels mately 11 minutes long. Crazy Glue is half that length.
between two haircuts in the same barbershop 25 years A Nick in Time runs about 15 minutes. This is time enough
Chapter |1 Script 13

to focus on only one main character. A dilemma is intro- The young man in Citizen is determined to cross the
duced, expanded, and resolved for Truman, the wife in border. The barber in A Nick in Time works hard to con-
Crazy Glue, the woman in The Lunch Date, the young vince the young man not to make the mistake of his life.
man in Citizen and the barber in A Nick in Time. It’s true Truman does not give up in his attempts to climb the rope
that the gym coach, the husband, the homeless man, and ladder. Neither does the woman give up in her pursuit of
the young man in A Nick in Time go through some sort “her salad” in The Lunch Date. Aristotle established this
of change, but only in direct relationship to the main char- dramatic principle in his Poetics 2,000 years ago. It is this
acter. They serve as the antagonist. They force or initiate ability to follow through that keeps the audience engaged
the conflict by serving as obstacles to the protagonist’s and the story alive.
goal. Although there can be other characters, our emotions Likewise, the antagonist must be a suitable adversary,
focus on one person’s story in each film. We don’t care for up to the challenge of the main character. “Unity of oppo-
the other characters in the same way as we care for the sites” is a common term in dramatic writing. The major
main characters. characters must be at least evenly matched for conflict to
When a short film is expanded to 30 minutes, it is pos- exist. If the antagonist is even stronger than the protago-
sible to deal fully with two characters, although their des- nist is, the audience will question whether the main char-
tinies should be interlocked in some way. An excellent acter will succeed, and when she does, the victory will
example of a two-character piece is an award-winning be that much more satisfying. In Citizen, Mother Nature
short film titled Minors, written and directed by Alan and the border patrol serve as worthy antagonists.
Kingsberg (1984, New York University). This film is the The coach is also relentless in his attempts to make
story of a teenage girl who needs a subject for her science Truman climb the rope ladder before he will let the class
project and a minor league pitcher struggling to make it to have some fun. If he let Truman off the hook too easily,
the majors. The story brings these two people together. there would be no conflict and no story (or it would be
The girl, who is a baseball fanatic, convinces the pitcher much shorter).
that if she can teach him to throw a curve ball, he will
be called up to play in the majors. She puts the pitcher Minimum Back Story
through a training program, and he eventually develops a
terrific curve ball. He is called up to the majors, but she What is back story? It is the historical information, or
is left without a project. He helps her present their pitching exposition, about the characters that is necessary to under-
experiment as the science project, and it is a success. She stand their motivation during the course of the story. In a
passes her science class, and he pitches for the Yankees. short, back story must be communicated quickly and effi-
Even though there are two main characters in Minors, ciently. A feature film has 30–40 minutes of setup time,
their goals intersect. Each wants something different, but but a short has only a few minutes.
the success of one is directly tied to the success of the other. The character of the woman in The Lunch Date is well
The pitcher makes it to the majors because of the student, defined by her wardrobe, packages, and demeanor. She is
and she completes her science project because of him. a wealthy woman headed back to the suburbs. Her reac-
tion to the street people in Grand Central Station sets up
an expectation about how she will react to the man who
What I knew from the script was the basic structure of the has “stolen” her lunch. Truman is immediately presented
events that would happen. The important things to me were as a young boy with a fear of climbing up a rope. We do
that the woman would get bumped, lose her wallet, miss her not need to know any more about his history to relate to
train, and that she’d enter this restaurant. She’d sit down, his present situation. A lonely wife in Crazy Glue fighting
get up to get a fork, and come back, and the guy would be to revive her marriage is someone we can all relate to. The
there. And they would share a salad, and he would get up young man in Citizen is willing to risk his life to avoid
and get coffee, and come back, and ta da. I had to figure being drafted. There is no need to know any more about
out how I was going to reveal her mistake. That was the these characters to understand the rest of the films.
framework that I had. Then the lines, the bits of action, and
A Nick in Time cleverly integrates the barber’s back
the small details would come out of that.
story into the fabric of the narrative. It serves two pur-
Adam Davidson
poses. We learn important exposition about the barber,
information that also serves as warning to the young
man who may be considering making a big mistake in
Follow-Through
his life.
Your main character must be capable of following through If understanding your main character requires the audi-
with the primary action or story purpose of the film. The ence to grasp too much information before the story can
conflict cannot be sustained if the character is not relent- start, find a clever way to integrate exposition into the
less in the pursuit of his goal. body of the story or move on to another idea.
14 Chapter |1 Script

Internal Motives, External Action Movies SHOW. . .and then TELL. A true movie is likely to be
Communicating internal problems is one of the chal- 60 to 80 percent comprehensible if the dialogue is in a foreign
lenges of writing for the screen. This is a visual language.
medium. Dramatic events must be manifested through Alexander Mackendrick, director and screenwriter,
The Sweet Smell of Success, The Man in the White Suit
actions and sounds. Truman, the wife in Crazy Glue,
and the woman from The Lunch Date expose their inter-
nal conflicts through their actions. Truman’s outrageous
fantasies are external representations of his fear. The Scripts are usually overwritten because writers feel the
wife in Crazy Glue sticks by her marriage, literally. In need to put it all in. It is the director’s job to trim the “fat”
The Lunch Date, the woman’s prejudice is revealed (unnecessary words or actions). In The Lunch Date, the origi-
when she refuses help from a well-dressed black man. nal screenplay called for the woman to be accosted by a home-
The barber in A Nick in Time warns the young man less person on her way to the train after the salad incident. She
not to do anything that he would regret in an indirect was to tell the man, “Get a job!” The scene was shot because it
way (because he knows he is cutting the hair of a cop) was in the script, but it is not in the final film. In the film, the
by telling him a story of his past. These stories throw woman is approached by a homeless man on her way to the
their characters into unexpected situations. We see train, but she completely ignores him. Why? This physical
who they are by the way they act. slight seemed to the director far more potent a gesture than
the words “Get a job!” Addressing the man acknowledges that
he exists; ignoring him treats him as if he doesn’t exist.
No Talking Heads
If your story contains a lot of dialogue and very little
action or dramatic movement, it might be better as a radio Collaboration
drama or a play. Films are usually about action. The
motives of the characters are exposed through their Working with a Writer
actions. Viewers should be able to watch a film with the Some producers can write, and some can’t. If writing is
sound off and still understand the story. The rule most not your strength, develop your script with a writer who
often quoted is “show, don’t tell.” Truman and Crazy Glue can effectively put your ideas on paper. You might
have very little dialogue; The Lunch Date has little mean- become a cowriter or act in a supervisory role. Most pro-
ingful dialogue. The young man in Citizen barely speaks. ducers follow the latter path unless they are confident wri-
His actions, willing to risk his life so that he can cross ters themselves. The give-and-take between two creative
the border to Canada, tell the audience volumes regarding individuals can energize the process, resulting in a union
his dedication and commitment. Everything that the barber in which the sum is greater than the parts.
says to the young man in A Nick in Time is supported by a During the process of developing and producing a proj-
visual dramatization in the past. ect, producers work with many different kinds of creative
The dialogue that exists supports the action, defines the people. No two egos are alike. Learning how to maximize
characters, and enhances our appreciation of the images. people’s varied talents is essential to becoming a good
If you are interested in adapting a play, you will need to producer. The writer is the first of these individuals.
“open up” the drama by devising actions and movement
to replace many of the words and to create a visual com-
We wrote the idea, my writing partner and I with whom
ponent that doesn’t exist on the stage. Documentaries I went to school, Tina Landsmark. We got together and wrote
should also seek visual action, rather than depending on the short story. We put it together and we went through sev-
one interview after another. Visuals should complement eral, several drafts of it to get it to the point where we actually
the aural narrative submitted it to a couple of contests. We ended up winning
one for the Organization of Black Screen Writers. We won
for Best Short Film. It proved we could tell a story.
Images Before Words
Be’ Garrett
The dominant rule about visual storytelling is that if you
can show it, don’t say it. Many beginners mistakenly think
you tell a story with dialogue. A director is aware that on Any agreement with a writer to develop an idea,
the screen, the actor’s face itself becomes part of the dia- whether it is the writer’s idea or yours, should be forma-
logue. A well-placed close-up could serve better than a lized on paper in a deal memo (see our web site). Once a
word or phrase; an image usually speaks louder than any director is brought on board, it will then be the re-
word. Dialogue supports the plot movement; it doesn’t sponsibility of the producer to supervise the collaboration
supersede that movement. Use the words to enhance, not between the director and the writer (if the director is not
replace, an image. going to personally rewrite the script herself).
Chapter |1 Script 15

Rewriting Ask these questions:

The axiom “writing is rewriting” is true. Stories go l What do you feel after you have read the story? Why
through evolutionary stages. They are like puzzles, does the story move you?
worked at until all the pieces fit together. The goal is to l What does it say about the human condition? Do you
find the right balance among the elements. Each draft identify with the theme?
reveals something that was hidden in the previous l Are you able to tell what happens in the story in one
version. sentence?
Professionals know that creating a well-crafted l Whose story is it? What does the main character want?
script takes time, patience, and devotion. The key is l How much of the story is developed through internal
to get it right before walking on the set. Don’t hope thoughts and feelings?
to work out script problems during the heat of produc- l Does the main character change? If so, is that change
tion. During preproduction, you have the time. Take it. demonstrated externally through action?

I counted 13 drafts altogether, but I don’t think that is a lot Find Your Plot and Characters
of drafts for a 10-minute film. Part of it is due to the fact To find the plot (what actually happens), strip the story of
that the short film form is not necessarily a very natural its dialogue and internal monologues (what the characters
writing form; it’s sort of a sonnet. It’s very tough. Thirteen
are thinking and feeling). This will reveal the dramatic
drafts is pretty much the average. Looking back through
through line of your story. Once you have eliminated what
my files, it’s clear that in each draft the story became
shorter and clearer and also moved closer to becoming a you can’t see or hear, what do you have? Is there a single
shooting script. action that unites the incidents of the story? Do you have a
Howard McCain character who wants something? Is there conflict? Is there
a beginning, middle, and end?
The well-to-do women in The Lunch Date, the boy in
Truman, the wife in Crazy Glue, the barber in A Nick in
Time, and the young man in Citizen are defined by what
What Is the Story About?
they do and say. Their actions represent their internal life.
You have found a short story that you love and want to Among the three films, only Truman attempts to get inside
adapt; there is a screenplay that you are interested in pro- the head of the main character. Truman’s fears are illu-
ducing; you have been developing several ideas with a strated by his colorful, dramatic, and funny fantasies. We
writer and have a draft that you are in the process of know Truman is scared, but these fantasies bring us closer
reworking. Knowing and understanding the basics of the to what he is experiencing
short form, you and your writer are ready to test the dra- In Tatia Rosenthal’s adaptation of Keret’s story Crazy
matic and visual potential of any of these projects. Equally Glue, a frustrated wife takes a creative approach to livening
important to scrutinize: is it an idea best suited for the up her sexual connection with her husband who has been
short form? Many beginners try to squeeze a feature film playing around with another woman. She glues herself to
concept into a short film script. These projects do not turn the ceiling. This is the action that defines the story and
out very well. the main character. However, there is a subtle difference
This next step involves picking apart the story to dis- between the structure of the story and the film. The short
cover the relationship between the characters, plot, and story is told through the husband’s point of view. Tatia
theme. Read the story or script over two or three times shifted the focus and presented the action through the
so it is firmly in your head. wife’s point of view in the film. It is now her story.

Crazy Glue
By Etgar Keret
She said, “Don’t touch that.” “Nothing around here needs gluing,” I said. “I wish I under-
“What is it?” I asked. stood why you buy all this stuff.”
“It’s glue,” she said. “Special glue. The best kind.” “For the same reason I married you,” she murmured. “To
“What did you buy it for?” help pass the time.”
“Because I need it,” she said. “A lot of things around here I didn’t want to fight, so I kept quiet, and so did she.
need gluing.”

Continued
16 Chapter |1 Script

Crazy Glue—cont’d
“Is it any good, this glue?” I asked. She showed me the pic- it to the floor. The fridge wouldn’t open. She’d glued it shut. I
ture on the box, with this guy hanging upside-down from the didn’t understand what was happening, what would make her
ceiling. do such a thing. I didn’t know where she was. I went into the
“No glue can really make a person stick like that,” I said. living-room to call her mother’s. I couldn’t lift the receiver;
“They just took the picture upside-down. They must have put she’d glued that too. I kicked the table and almost broke my
a lamp on the floor.” I took the box from her and peered at it. toe. It didn’t even budge.
“And there, look at the window. They didn’t even bother to And then I heard her laughing. It was coming from some-
hang the blinds the other way. They’re upside-down, if he’s where above me. I looked up, and there she was, standing
really standing on the ceiling. Look,” I said again, pointing to barefoot on the living room ceiling.
the window. She didn’t look. I stared openmouthed. When I found my voice I could only
“It’s eight already,” I said. “I’ve got to run.” I picked up my ask, “What the hell. . .are you out of your mind?”
briefcase and kissed her on the cheek. “I’ll be back pretty late. She didn’t answer, just smiled. Her smile seemed so natural,
I’m working—” with her hanging upside-down like that, as if her lips were just
“Overtime,” she said. “Yes, I know.” stretching on their own by the sheer force of gravity.
I called Abby from the office. “Don’t worry, I’ll get you down,” I said, hurrying to the shelf
“I can’t make it today,” I said. “I’ve got to get home early.” and grabbing the largest books. I made a tower of encyclopedia
“Why?” Abby asked. “Something happen?” volumes and clambered on top of the pile.
“No. . . I mean, maybe. I think she suspects something.” “This may hurt a little,” I said, trying to keep my balance.
There was a long silence. I could hear Abby’s breathing on She went on smiling. I pulled as hard as I could, but nothing
the other end. happened. Carefully, I climbed down.
“I don’t see why you stay with her,” she whispered. “You “Don’t worry,” I said. “I’ll get the neighbors or something.
never do anything together. You don’t even fight. I’ll never I’ll go next door and call for help.”
understand it.” There was a pause, and then she repeated, “Fine,” she laughed. “I’m not going anywhere.”
“I wish I understood.” She was crying. I laughed too. She was so pretty, and so incongruous, hang-
“I’m sorry. I’m sorry, Abby. Listen, someone just came in,” I ing upside-down from the ceiling that way. With her long hair
lied. “I’ve got to hang up. I’ll come over tomorrow. I promise. dangling downwards, and her breasts molded like two perfect
We’ll talk about everything then.” teardrops under her white T-shirt. So pretty. I climbed back up
I got home early. I said “Hi” as I walked in, but there was no onto the pile of books and kissed her. I felt her tongue on mine.
reply. I went through all the rooms in the house. She wasn’t in The books tumbled out from under my feet, but I stayed floating
any of them. On the kitchen table I found the tube of glue, in midair, hanging just from her lips.
completely empty. I tried to move one of the chairs, to sit Translated by Miriam Shlesinger
down. It didn’t budge. I tried again. Not an inch. She’d glued

The story you are interested in adapting may include human condition. In “Are These Actual Miles,” the narra-
several characters but no leading contender for the main tive unfolds inside the main character’s mind as he thinks
one. In the Raymond Carver story “Are These Actual about the events leading up to that day. The richness and
Miles,” a man in desperate financial straits spends a day descriptive nature of the language and original writing
in his house, while his wife is out trying to sell their car style keep us engaged and involved, but nothing really
and his kids are with their grandparents. Nothing actually happens. Our primary information in a filmed story should
happens inside his home. The man sits around and drinks be communicated through the characters’ actions, not their
and mulls over how he and his family got into the fix they thoughts. If we filmed Carver’s story as is, we would
are in. The action or plot of the story (selling the car) takes spend 15 minutes in a room watching a passive, unsympa-
place somewhere else, and his and our only contact with thetic man drink and mull over his fate while his wife des-
its progress is through the telephone. The bulk of the story, perately tries to sell their car for much needed funds.
however, is internal and communicated through the man’s The types of stories to look for that externalize the
thoughts and feelings while he waits for his wife to come drama and translate more effectively to the screen are in
back. Although, as written, it is the husband’s story the vein of those written by the great American short story
because the world is seen through his eyes, the wife is writer O. Henry, the pen name of William Sydney Porter
the only active character. (1862–1910). O. Henry stories are known for their wit
and colorful characterizations but mostly for their surprise
twist endings, to the point that such an ending is often
Make the Internal External
referred to as an “O. Henry ending.” Many of his stories
The Carver story underscores one of the ways literature take place in New York City, and deal for the most part
differs in its capacity to explore internal conflict and the with ordinary people: clerks, policemen, and waitresses.
Chapter |1 Script 17

You can pick up a selection of his stories or rent O. General Guidelines for Adaptation
Henry’s Full House, the 1952 feature film featuring the
Film and literature are separate media; they shouldn’t have
dramatization of five of his stories. The following are
to compete with one another. Neither film nor theater can
short synopses of two stories that are included in the film.
surpass the power of literature to explore the internal life
“The Gift of the Magi” is about a young married cou-
of the characters, but what a film can offer that a book
ple who are short of money but desperately want to buy
cannot is powerful images (as well as a creative use of
each other Christmas gifts. Unbeknownst to Jim, Della
sounds). The idea that a picture is worth a thousand words
sells her most valuable possession, her beautiful hair, in
rings true. The camera has the ability to see into the soul
order to buy a platinum fob chain for Jim’s watch; while
of the character and read her true intentions. With film
unbeknownst to Della, Jim sells his own most valuable
dialogue, what is not said, the subtext, is often far more
possession, his watch, to buy jeweled combs for Della’s
meaningful than the words themselves.
hair. “The Ransom of Red Chief” is about two men who
These are some general guidelines to follow as you or
kidnap a boy of 10 for ransom. The boy turns out to be
your writer tackles the adaptation of your story:
so bratty and obnoxious that the desperate men ultimately
pay the boy’s father $250 to take him back. l Find the dramatic spine of your story.
l Be aware of the economy of time, place, and action.
l Be true to the essence or spirit of the story.
Dramatic Expectations
l Be willing to reinvent.
Question the dramatic expectations of the material. Do l Keep it simple.
they exceed the short form? In 6–30 minutes, can you l Make it your story.
expect us to believe that your character could arrive at a
Short stories can be episodic and take place over dec-
major life decision? Will the young man in A Nick in Time
ades. There may be many characters with many goals.
take the barber’s advice? Will Truman climb the rope lad-
Keep the action focused in time (a short as possible), in
der? Will the woman be able to eat her salad? Will the
place (as few locations as possible), and in action (one
wife fight for her husband? Will the young man in Citizen
plot line). Truman and The Lunch Date take place over
make it across the border? These are attainable goals
an hour at best; Crazy Glue, over two days. A Nick in
within 12 minutes. Could we expect the woman to change
Time takes place over the span of one haircut. In each
her attitude toward the homeless in 12 minutes of screen
of these stories, there is one main character with one goal
time? Certainly not. In fact, as she leaves the cafeteria,
in one to two locations. The time frame of Citizen is cen-
she completely ignores a homeless man asking for spare
tered on two actions: the physical examination, which
change, and as she enters the train, she collapses in relief.
takes only a few minutes, and the character’s quest to
That is not to say change can’t happen, but it must be
cross the border, which takes approximately a day and
small in scope. We must believe it could happen in the
a night.
short “screen time” we have with these characters
Probably the biggest hurdle to overcome is the feeling
that you are obligated to the author of the story (or in case
of a true story, the facts) to retain as much as possible of
What Do You Do Now? the structure and dialogue of the story. This is a normal
reaction, but one that will not result in the best adaptation.
You have dissected your story or screenplay completely.
The goal is to create an organic piece, not one that has
If your screenplay meets the requirements we have out-
been constructed piecemeal from another medium. You
lined in this chapter, you can look to bring a director on
are out to make the best motion picture possible and one
board. If you have been examining a short story for dra-
that will retain all the emotions of the story, it is hoped,
matic potential, you must ask these questions: Do you
but presented in a different package. Achieving this is
have a story that will translate to the screen? Does this
the goal of adaptation. The enormity of the task will
wonderful literary property you have fallen in love with
depend entirely on the nature of the story you have cho-
fulfill the dramatic requirements of a film story?
sen. The lesson from this section: look for material with
If so, now comes the specific craft of adaptation. How
active characters.
creative you and your writer will have to be will be based
on the nature of the story. Tatia Rosenthal had little to do
other than shift the point of view. In Rosenthal’s short film
True Stories and Events
Crazy Glue, the wife is now the active character who,
faced with a marriage problem, decides to do something Follow the lessons of literary adaptation if you have the
about it. In Carver’s story, we suspect a great deal would rights to a true story or something that happened to you,
have to be done. The following section provides some a friend, or a member of your family that you thought
general guidelines to follow. would be the foundation of a screenplay.
18 Chapter |1 Script

Don’t be seduced by the notion of “this is really what the director and the writer may not be able to see eye
happened.” Mark Twain once said, “Why shouldn’t truth to eye on how to solve the creative challenges of the
be stranger than fiction? Fiction, after all, has to stick to script. At this point, the director can either take over
possibilities.” The events of life are arbitrary, strange, the writing responsibilities or request that another writer
and unpredictable. It is the artist’s job to manipulate those be brought on.
facts to satisfy the dramatic need of the story. Up to this point, the writer has supplied the creative
Use an event as a springboard to develop a character. direction for the project. His vision, coupled with
Just like Howard McCain used the rope ladder to express the producer’s, has governed the direction of the screen-
an event that could have happened to anyone of us and play. With a director on board, it will be her vision
to explore a child’s fear, look inside the event that you that guides the project. Depending on how much work
would like to express in a film. What does it mean to has to be done (from polish to complete rewrite), the
you? What truth does it reveal about life, and what do progress made will depend on the creative relationship
you have to do to manipulate the event to make that truth between the writer and the director. The success of this
self-evident? collaboration is key, and it is the producer’s job ulti-
mately to see that the project is best served by this
union.
DIRECTOR
Supervising or Performing Rewrites STUDENTS
It is our experience that most students want to write their own
When the screenplay is well into development, the
scripts. They feel that it is not “their story” if they don’t.
producer brings in the next important member of the
However, the failure of many student projects is most often
creative team: the director (unless she is also the the result of script, not directorial, problems. There are wri-
writer). The producer seeks an individual who is ters, there are directors, and there are some who can do both.
aware of the material’s dramatic potential and shares Recognizing where your talent lies is a part of the learning
or complements the producer’s vision. The director will experience. Developing a relationship with a writer in a film
shepherd the script through the final stages of develop- school setting will more accurately mirror what will happen
ment, supervising the rewrites or completing them her- in the professional world, where directors usually don’t write
self and freeing the producer to focus on fundraising their own scripts but sometimes must work with many writers
and preproduction. on a single project.
The director puts her personal stamp on all projects
through the creative decisions she makes along the way,
such as guiding the actors, approving the choice of crew Director as Storyteller
and locations, and determining the visual style. She pro- The director must evaluate whether the story is being
vides the creative glue that holds the project together. told properly. Is the present draft the best realization
However, the foundation on which all else is built is the of the central theme or concept behind the story? If
script. A director who writes or rewrites the script or col- the script needs work, the director must work with the
laborates with the writer contributes her personalized writer or apply her own storytelling skills to reshape
vision to the project. In so doing, she should ensure that the screenplay.
the final draft is the best it can be. After all, any story The work to be done might vary from a slight “polish”
worth telling is worth telling well. (minor dialogue changes) to a complete rewrite (restruc-
turing the story). If the script is in relatively good shape,
the director need only prepare it to be photographed by
Working with the Writer
creating a shooting script. This process requires number-
If the producer has developed the script with a writer, ing the scenes to reflect the (See figure 4.2 in Chapter 4)
several important decisions are made at this point. If locations. Each scene is given a number to make the
the writer has been paid to turn in several versions of breakdown of the screenplay precise. When this stage
the script, the producer has the right to terminate the rela- has been completed, the real work of preproduction can
tionship and bring in the director to take on the responsi- begin—that is, the stripboard, budget, and schedule.
bilities of rewriting the script. However, if all parties are Elements other than story content and structure can
pleased with the progress of the script, the writer will influence the development of the screenplay. The direc-
now work with the director to complete whatever work tor might be inspired by a location, a particular actor,
has yet to be done. It makes sense to keep a writer whose or the work being done during rehearsals. While scouting
work has been good, but a writer can become creatively locations, she might come upon a unique setting that
dry and be unable to further enhance a project. Also, inspires a rewrite of a particular scene or even the whole
Chapter |1 Script 19

story. After hearing a strong performer read a part, the

I was amazed at how hard it is to have a cohesive story come
director might decide to shape the character to better fit across and be moving, or even clear. I think I was so terrified
the talents of that actor. Some directors use the rehearsal by my live action film experiences in the early years of film
period to clarify and sharpen character development or to school that I went into animation in order to hone my story-
find dialogue that feels more natural to each character’s telling skills in a more contained environment.
voice. Tatia Rosenthal

It’s always, I think, about discovering the story. You write Readings
it on paper. You rewrite it. Then you start shooting it. You
shoot a lot. You start editing the film together and then— Once the script is close to being finalized, the director should
where’s the story? So you’ve got to find it all over again. conduct readings to audition the material. It is one thing to
You start editing things out, changing things around write a line on paper, but quite another to hear that line read
slightly. aloud or see it performed by an actor under a director’s guid-
Adam Davidson ance. What the director and actor want to discover is whether
the lines ring true. How do the words flow off the tongue?
Are there too many words or too few? Is the space bet-
Story Questions ween the words (pauses) more poignant than the words
themselves?
When you analyze your story/script, these are questions to
After you live with a project for such a long time, it
keep in mind:
becomes difficult to analyze what comes off the page
Who is the main character? For a short film, it is best to because you know too much. You have all this back story
focus on no more than one character’s story. swimming in your brain and expect that we know the
What does he/she want? Is it clear what the character’s characters as well as you do. You know how to read
goal is? Is it tangible and specific? Love, respect, and between the lines. We don’t. You must be able to take a
honor are worthy goals, but can they be accomplished step back and be critical about what each scene tells us,
in 20 minutes? not what you hope it tells us.
What are the stakes? How important is it for characters
to get what they want? What does it mean to them?
We had a good script in the beginning, and by the time we
Is the main character’s goal achievable (and believ- had gotten to the point of actual principal photography, we
able) within 15–30 minutes? had figured out the arc of each person’s story.
Is your main character actively pursuing his goal in Be’ Garrett
every scene? Are the characters active versus passive?
What is the conflict? What are the obstacles preventing
the main character from getting what he wants? Have The Shooting Script
you identified an antagonist?
Can we ultimately believe that the character can Having supervised the rewrite or having rewritten the
achieve the goal at the end of the film? Is the climax screenplay herself, the director must now develop the shoot-
satisfying and believable? ing script, which is a visual plan for the project. This draft is
written in the standard format of the Writers Guild of Amer-
ica and has markings and numbers that communicate the
Scene Analysis director’s vision to the producer and the camera and art
departments. Up to this point, it has not been important for
How does each scene:
the script to reflect shots or visual references. The emphasis
Advance the story and expand our awareness of the char- has been on structure, character, and dialogue.
acters and the conflict? The first step is to number each scene, enabling the pro-
Follow from the previous scene? duction team to identify each scene by its numbered code.
Lead to the next scene (the importance of transitions)? The director then previsualizes the script; that is, she creates
Advance the arc of the character(s)—what do we know a shooting plan for each scene. The plan should reflect
that we didn’t before? how the director will “cover” each scene in the project.
Feel rhythmically? The term coverage refers to the amount and type of shots
Change the relationship between the characters? the director will need to tell the story adequately in each
Give information to characters? scene. Developing a shot plan requires that the director
Give information to the audience? break down the script and create floor plans, storyboards,
Resolve the dramatic need of the main character? or both. (See Chapter 3 for more information.)
20 Chapter |1 Script

The director then marks the script with her shot plan. Animation
It will include abbreviations such as CU (close-up,
a very tight shot on an object or a character’s face), Live action usually starts with a script and then a break-
LS (long shot, in which the camera takes in a lot down, which is often followed by storyboarding. An ani-
of visual information), 2S (two-shot, in which two mator will often start with concept sketches and a short
characters are in the frame at the same time), and OTS treatment followed by an elaborate storyboarding process.
(over-the-shoulder shot, which is like a two-shot except Live action boards often block out the basic shots in
that the camera favors the face of one of the two a scene. Animation boards frequently show every “beat”
characters). of the scene. There can be a new beat with every change
The shooting script gives the producer information in emotion or significant character movement. For anima-
from which to construct an accurate schedule. The rest tion, specific production notes often accompany the boards.
of the production team obtains from the shooting script a Animators often use the boards and sketches as guides to
point of view from which to design the project. build a rough animation known as an animatic. The anima-
tic can have crude details and unrefined movement. It is
meant to resolve issues of blocking, composition, and, most
important, timing. Because CG character modeling and
How Do Scripts Affect Budgets? setup take such a long time, studios often produce the ani-
To begin fundraising, the producer needs to have an matic while primary modeling is still under way.
accurate budget that reflects the complete cost of pro-
ducing the script. Changes in the script that affect the
A crucial question I always ask myself before setting out to
budget must be examined at this stage. Suppose, for
make any film is, is this subject eminently “filmable” and
example, the writer describes a character’s interaction
uniquely appropriate to be treated in film? While I’m making
with another in a crowded restaurant. The extras a film, I try to foreground that issue to ensure that I am exploit-
become one of the many items that must be delivered ing (in a good way) the unique properties of film—the inter-
to the set on the day when the particular scene is to be face of sound and image, and an opportunity to frame things
shot. The producer looks at the script and says to him- differently from how one normally processes the world.
self, “Where do I get the 50 extras? Won’t it require Jan Krawitz
extra makeup personnel? Where am I going to get the
costumes? Where am I going to hold them? How much
food will be required? How much will it add to the Documentaries
budget?”
Aware of budget constraints and responsible for the Because the development and execution of a documentary
schedule, the producer might ask that a more manageable (nonfictional narrative) might take months or even years,
and less expensive solution be found. If the story is not be sure to choose subject matter about which you feel
compromised, an outdoor table, which is a smaller, well strongly and have a great desire to learn more. You might
lit, and a less expensive production item, could replace a need to do extensive research to determine whether the
crowded restaurant. The producer should request this sub- subject matter warrants making a short film. You might
stitution during preproduction rather than on the day have to view films or videos on the same or similar
before the scene is to be shot. subjects, research newspaper and magazine articles, or
Sometimes, compromises cannot be made without conduct pre-interviews. (An excellent collection of docu-
adversely affecting the project. In The Lunch Date, mentary shorts is distributed by the Full Frame Documen-
for example, one location could not be compromised. tary Film Festival.)
Grand Central Station is a very expensive location, but There are a few basic questions to consider when you
it had to be secured for two days of shooting. The film have found a subject that you believe is worth pursuing:
would not have had the same impact if it had been shot l What is the subject’s underlying significance to me?
in the train station at Stamford, Connecticut. l What is unusual and interesting about it?
l Are there compelling characters?
From its inception I wrote the script knowing that I did not l Where is the specialness really visible?
have a lot of money. So, I would say for young filmmakers l Do the characters or the story move the heart?
the thing to do and what I learned when I came out of film l Is there food for thought and or inspiration?
school, was write a script that is doable. Write a script that l Is there a story?
you know I can use x amount of dollars if I can get my hands l What can I show?
on it to shoot this. l Why do it (at all)?
Be’ Garrett l Why do it now?
Chapter |1 Script 21

The subject matter should contain inherent dramatic probing but cordial. If the subject needs to be drawn
value that engages the viewer in the same way a narra- out, a more provocative approach might be required.
tive story does, but with real, not imagined, events.
This could be an examination of an individual’s or
I asked my 13 subjects the same set of four questions, chang-
a group’s struggle to overcome adversities. There ing the composition for each question. I knew that I would
also must be filmic possibilities to support the inter- intercut their responses, relying on a jump-cut technique.
views, a corresponding visual story that complements One question was, “Describe your body from head to foot,
the aural. discussing different parts as you go.” Some women would
start with their hair, and were very diligent about hitting every
body part, and some people would start with their neck and
I thought I was interested in this whole notion of the jump to their knees, and that was okay. If they did that, I
“ideal” and how women in our culture are tyrannized by didn’t ask them to talk about their breasts, waist, or hips.
the belief that there exists an ideal body type and that it It was quite revealing to observe what they chose to talk
is ultimately unattainable. I wanted to present the ideal as about or ignore. Some parts were complimented, and some
something not fixed in stone, but as a representation of parts were totally derided. A second question was, “If you
something separate and different from all of us. I was inter- could redesign your body to conform to the concept of your
ested in the vagaries of the ideal. So I began to read a lot of ideal, what would it look like?” I didn’t realize it at the time,
books about concepts of beauty during different decades, but the two questions are essentially the same. Because while
trying to identify the prescriptions for this ideal type. I read they were redesigning, they might say, “I really hate my
about how the White Rock girl, who adorned bottles of shoulders,” for example, and that was an answer to the earlier
White Rock, was redesigned every decade so that her question.
dimensions would reflect the changing concepts of the Jan Krawitz
perfect physical type.
Jan Krawitz
The final script for a documentary can be fully devel-
oped only in postproduction. With all the visual and audio
From research notes, an outline for the documentary materials in hand, the director begins to grasp the shape
can be created. This outline serves as the genesis of a that the film will eventually take. The audio portion of
script during preproduction. From the outline, a series of the show will be the voices from the on- and off-camera
questions is prepared for each interview. The combination interviews, the track of the verité footage, any audiotape
of on-camera interviews, stock footage, and cinema verité recorded, and possibly a narration. The assemblage of
(in some cases, staged events) constitutes the visual com- these audio elements, especially the narration (if applica-
ponents of the piece. ble), becomes the final script.
It is acceptable to write out the script in its entirety.
This includes creating the answers you anticipate record-
ing. By writing out the script, you can prepare questions Developing a Web Presence
that will help your subject respond according to your
In the same way that you are developing your short film
design. This gives the director a target during the inter-
idea, you can simultaneously be researching the possibili-
views. The questions might be answered very differently
ties of actively using the Internet to promote awareness of
than you expected, but together with the subject, you can
your project, raise funds, reach out to cast and crew, and
explore fully the issues at hand.
eventually serve as a distribution outlet. The Internet can
be used as a tool to whatever extent you wish to use it.
We will be outlining all the possibilities throughout the
A lot of documentarists, and particularly women, have moved
book (Our web site will contain a link to how a web pres-
into fiction films after 5 or 10 years. They say, I got tired of
sitting around waiting for people to say what I wanted them to
ence can be developed and utilized). It is up to you, the
say. I always find that so interesting because for me, that’s filmmaker, to decide to what extent you wish to avail
why I will stay in documentary—because you never know yourself of its possibilities.
what people are going to say, and I really like the unpredict- As you develop your short film idea, you can
ability of it.
l Create a plan for your site.
Jan Krawitz
l Explore different designs.
l Create a site flow chart.
l Develop a trailer for the project.
Depending on the subject, the questions you compose
can be easy or provocative. If the subject is forthcoming This is a team project and, of course, you will require
with the information required, the questions can be someone to serve as web designer. Given the technical
22 Chapter |1 Script

know-how of most young people today, this should not be l Proper format has a direct bearing on the production
a problem. It is, however, one more key individual to be a breakdowns.
part of the production team. l Good scripts are not written; they are rewritten.
l Understand the short form. As the feature is to the epic
KEY POINTS poem, the short is to the haiku.

l Without a good script, you cannot have a good final

product.